Characterizing the Stability of Angiotensin II in 0.9% Sodium Chloride Using High Performance Liquid Chromatography and Liquid Chromatography Tandem Mass Spectrometry.

Purpose: The purpose of this study was to evaluate the stability of angiotensin II in 0.9% sodium chloride for up to 5 days. Methods: We prepared angiotensin II dilutions, by aseptically diluting 2.5 mg (1 mL) in 249 mL 0.9% sodium chloride creating a solution of 10 000 ng/mL. Admixtures were stored under refrigeration (5 ± 3°C). Stability of the dilution was assessed by: preservation of clarity, consistency of pH, and retention of concentration. Solutions were sampled at times 0, 24, 48, 72, 96, 120 hours. Solutions were analyzed via High-Performance Liquid Chromatography (HPLC-UV) and Liquid Chromatography Mass Spectrometry (LC-MS/MS). Retention of concentration was set a priori at > 90% of initial concentration. Results: Clarity, color, and pH at all sample time points remained constant. Both methods of analysis confirmed similar results. When stored under refrigeration, the concentration of angiotensin II solution remained above 90% of initial concentration throughout the entire sampling period. Conclusions: Angiotensin II in 0.9% sodium chloride stored in infusion bags under refrigeration (5 ± 3°C) maintained at least 90% of their original concentrations for up to 5 days. Stability was also demonstrated based on turbidity, color, and pH assessment.

Non-covalent inhibitors of thioredoxin glutathione reductase with schistosomicidal activity in vivo.

Only praziquantel is available for treating schistosomiasis, a disease affecting more than 200 million people. Praziquantel-resistant worms have been selected for in the lab and low cure rates from mass drug administration programs suggest that resistance is evolving in the field. Thioredoxin glutathione reductase (TGR) is essential for schistosome survival and a validated drug target. TGR inhibitors identified to date are irreversible and/or covalent inhibitors with unacceptable off-target effects. In this work, we identify noncovalent TGR inhibitors with efficacy against schistosome infections in mice, meeting the criteria for lead progression indicated by WHO. Comparisons with previous in vivo studies with praziquantel suggests that these inhibitors outperform the drug of choice for schistosomiasis against juvenile worms.

Exploring the Interactome of Cytochrome P450 2E1 in Human Liver Microsomes with Chemical Crosslinking Mass Spectrometry.

Aiming to elucidate the system-wide effects of the alcohol-induced increase in the content of cytochrome P450 2E1 (CYP2E1) on drug metabolism, we explored the array of its protein-protein interactions (interactome) in human liver microsomes (HLM) with chemical crosslinking mass spectrometry (CXMS). Our strategy employs membrane incorporation of purified CYP2E1 modified with photoreactive crosslinkers benzophenone-4-maleimide and 4-(N-succinimidylcarboxy)benzophenone. Exposure of bait-incorporated HLM samples to light was followed by isolating the His-tagged bait protein and its crosslinked aggregates on Ni-NTA agarose. Analyzing the individual bands of SDS-PAGE slabs of thereby isolated protein with the toolset of untargeted proteomics, we detected the crosslinked dimeric and trimeric complexes of CYP2E1 with other drug-metabolizing enzymes. Among the most extensively crosslinked partners of CYP2E1 are the cytochromes P450 2A6, 2C8, 3A4, 4A11, and 4F2, UDP-glucuronosyltransferases (UGTs) 1A and 2B, fatty aldehyde dehydrogenase (ALDH3A2), epoxide hydrolase 1 (EPHX1), disulfide oxidase 1α (ERO1L), and ribophorin II (RPN2). These results demonstrate the exploratory power of the proposed CXMS strategy and corroborate the concept of tight functional integration in the human drug-metabolizing ensemble through protein-protein interactions of the constituting enzymes.

Probing functional interactions between cytochromes P450 with principal component analysis of substrate saturation profiles and targeted proteomics.

We investigated the correspondence between drug metabolism routes and the composition of the P450 ensemble in human liver microsomes (HLM). As a probe, we used Coumarin 152 (C152), a fluorogenic substrate metabolized by multiple P450 species. Studying the substrate-saturation profiles (SSP) in seven pooled HLM preparations, we sought to correlate them with the P450 pool's composition characterized by targeted proteomics. This analysis, complemented with the assays with specific inhibitors of CYP3A4 and CYP2C19, the primary C152 metabolizers, demonstrated a significant contrast between different HLM samples. To unveil the source of these differences, we implemented Principal Component Analysis (PCA) of the SSP series obtained with HLM samples with a known composition of the P450 pool. Our analysis revealed that the parameters of C152 metabolism are primarily determined by the content of CYP2A6, CYP2B6, CYP2C8, CYP2E1, and CYP3A5 of those only CYP2B6 and CYP3A5 can metabolize C152. To validate this finding, we studied the effect of enriching HLM with CYP2A6, CYP2E1, and CYP3A5. The incorporation of CYP3A5 into HLM decreases the rate of C152 metabolism while increasing the role of CYP2B6 in its turnover. In contrast, incorporation of CYP2A6 and CYP2E1 reroutes the C152 demethylation towards some P450 enzyme with a moderate affinity to the substrate, most likely CYP3A4. Our results reveal a sharp non-additivity of the individual P450 properties and suggest a pivotal role of P450-P450 interactions in determining drug metabolism routes. This study demonstrates the high potential of our new PCA-based approach in unveiling functional interrelationships between different P450 species.

Effects of alcohol-induced increase in CYP2E1 content in human liver microsomes on the activity and cooperativity of CYP3A4.

We investigate the effect of the alcohol-induced increase in the content of CYP2E1 in human liver microsomes (HLM) on the function of CYP3A4. Membrane incorporation of the purified CYP2E1 into HLM considerably increases the rate of metabolism of 7-benzyloxyquinoline (BQ) and attenuates the homotropic cooperativity observed with this CYP3A4-specific substrate. It also eliminates the activating effect of α-naphthoflavone (ANF) seen in some HLM samples. To probe the physiological relevance of these effects, we compared three pooled preparations of HLM from normal donors (HLM-N) with a pooled preparation from ten heavy alcohol consumers (HLM-A). The composition of the P450 pool in all samples was characterized by the mass-spectrometric determination of 11 cytochrome P450 species. The fractional content of CYP2E1 in HLM-A was from 2.0 to 3.4 times higher than in HLM-N. In contrast, the content of CYP3A4 in HLM-A was the lowest among all samples. Despite that, HLM-A exhibited a much higher metabolism rate and a lower homotropic cooperativity with BQ, similar to CYP2E1-enriched HLM-N. To substantiate the involvement of interactions between CYP2E1 and CYP3A4 in these effects, we probed hetero-association of these proteins in CYP3A4-containing Supersomes™ with a technique employing CYP2E1 labeled with BODIPY-618 maleimide. These experiments evinced the interactions between the two enzymes and revealed an inhibitory effect of ANF on their association. Our results demonstrate that the functional properties of CYP3A4 are fundamentally dependent on the composition of the cytochrome P450 ensemble and suggest a possible impact of chronic alcohol exposure on the pharmacokinetics of drugs metabolized by CYP3A4.

Nonadditivity in human microsomal drug metabolism revealed in a study with coumarin 152, a polyspecific cytochrome P450 substrate.

We closely characterized 7-Dimethylamino-4-trifluromethylcoumarin (Coumarin 152, C152), a substrate metabolized by multiple P450 species, to establish a new fluorogenic probe for the studies of functional integration in the cytochrome P450 ensemble. Scanning fluorescence spectroscopy and LC/MS-MS were used to characterize the products of N-demethylation of C152 and optimize their fluorometric detection. The metabolism of C152 by the individual P450 species was characterized using the microsomes containing cDNA-expressed enzymes. C152 metabolism in human liver microsomes (HLM) was studied in a preparation with quantified content of eleven P450 species. C152 is metabolized by CYP2B6, CYP3A4, CYP3A5, CYP2C19, CYP1A2, CYP2C9, and CYP2C8 listed in the order of decreasing turnover. The affinities exhibited by CYP3A5, CYP2C9, and CYP2C8 were lower than those characteristic to the other enzymes. The presumption of additivity suggests the participation of CYP3A4, CYP2B6, and CYP2C19 to be 84, 8, and 0.2%, respectively. Contrary to this prediction, inhibitory analysis identified CYP2C19 as the principal C152-metabolizing enzyme. We thoroughly characterize C152 for the studies of drug metabolism in HLM and demonstrate the limitations of the proportional projection approach by providing an example, where the involvement of individual P450 species cannot be predicted from their content.

Toward a systems approach to cytochrome P450 ensemble: interactions of CYP2E1 with other P450 species and their impact on CYP1A2.

In this study, we investigate the ability of ethanol-inducible CYP2E1 to interact with other cytochrome P450 species and affect the metabolism of their substrates. As a model system, we used CYP2E1-enriched human liver microsomes (HLM) obtained by the incorporation of purified CYP2E1. Using a technique based on homo-FRET in oligomers of CYP2E1 labeled with BODIPY 577/618 maleimide we demonstrated that the interactions of CYP2E1 with HLM result in the formation of its mixed oligomers with other P450 species present in the microsomal membrane. Incorporation of CYP2E1 results in a multifold increase in the rate of metabolism of CYP2E1-specific substrates p-Nitrophenol and Chlorzaxozone. The rate of their oxidation remains proportional to the amount of incorporated CYP2E1 up to the content of 0.3-0.4 nmol/mg protein (or ∼50% CYP2E1 in the P450 pool). The incorporated CYP2E1 becomes a fully functional member of the P450 ensemble and do not exhibit any detectable functional differences with the endogenous CYP2E1. Enrichment of HLM with CYP2E1 results in pronounced changes in the metabolism of 7-ethoxy-4-cyanocoumarin (CEC), the substrate of CYP2C19 and CYP1A2 suggesting an increase in the involvement of the latter in its metabolism. This effect goes together with an augmentation of the rate of dealkylation of CYP1A2-specific substrate 7-ethoxyresorufin. Furthermore, probing the interactions of CYP2E1 with model microsomes containing individual P450 enzymes we found that CYP2E1 efficiently interacts with CYP1A2, but lacks any ability to form complexes with CYP2C19. This finding goes inline with CYP2E1-induced redirection of the main route of CEC metabolism from CYP2C19 to CYP1A2.

Bacterial CYP154C8 catalyzes carbon-carbon bond cleavage in steroids.

Here, we report the first bacterial cytochrome P450, CYP154C8, that catalyzes the C-C bond cleavage reaction of steroids. A major change in product distribution is observed with CYP154C8, when the reactions are supported by NADPH and spinach redox partners ferredoxin and ferredoxin reductase, compared with previously reported reactions supported by NADH and redox partners containing putidaredoxin and putidaredoxin reductase. The NMR-based structural elucidation of reaction products reveals 21-hydroxyprednisone as the major product for prednisone, while the other product is identified as 1-dehydroadrenosterone obtained due to C-C bond cleavage. A similar pattern of product formation is observed with cortisone, hydrocortisone, and prednisone. The reaction catalyzed by CYP154C8 in the presence of oxygen surrogates also prominently shows the formation of C-C bond cleavage products.

Characterization of two steroid hydroxylases from different Streptomyces spp. and their ligand-bound and -unbound crystal structures.

Bacterial cytochrome P450 (CYP) enzymes are involved in the hydroxylation of various endogenous substrates while using a heme molecule as a cofactor. CYPs have gained biotechnological interest as useful biocatalysts capable of altering chemical structures by adding a hydroxyl group in a regiospecific manner. Here, we identified, purified, and characterized two CYP154C4 proteins from Streptomyces sp. W2061 (StCYP154C4-1) and Streptomyces sp. ATCC 11861 (StCYP154C4-2). Activity assays showed that both StCYP154C4-1 and StCYP154C4-2 can produce 2'-hydroxylated testosterone, which differs from the activity of a previously described NfCYP154C5 from Nocardia farcinica in terms of its 16α-hydroxylation of testosterone. To better understand the molecular basis of the regioselectivity of these two CYP154C4 proteins, crystal structures of the ligand-unbound form of StCYP154C4-1 and the testosterone-bound form of StCYP154C4-2 were determined. Comparison with the previously determined NfCYP154C5 structure revealed differences in the substrate-binding residues, suggesting a likely explanation for the different patterns of testosterone hydroxylation, despite the high sequence similarities between the enzymes (54% identity). These findings provide valuable insights that will enable protein engineering for the development of artificial steroid-related CYPs exhibiting different regiospecificity.

Effects of Alternative Redox Partners and Oxidizing Agents on CYP154C8 Catalytic Activity and Product Distribution.

CYP154C8 catalyzes the hydroxylation of diverse steroids, as has previously been demonstrated, by using an NADH-dependent system including putidaredoxin and putidaredoxin reductase as redox partner proteins carrying electrons from NADH. In other reactions, CYP154C8 reconstituted with spinach ferredoxin and NADPH-dependent ferredoxin reductase displayed catalytic activity different from that of the NADH-dependent system. The NADPH-dependent system showed multistep oxidation of progesterone and other substrates including androstenedione, testosterone, and nandrolone. (Diacetoxyiodo)benzene was employed to generate compound I (FeO3+ ), actively supporting the redox reactions catalyzed by CYP154C8. In addition to 16α-hydroxylation, progesterone and 11-oxoprogesterone also underwent hydroxylation at the 6ß-position in reactions supported by (diacetoxyiodo)benzene. CYP154C8 was active in the presence of high concentrations (>10 mm) of H2 O2 , with optimum conversion surprisingly being achieved at ≈75 mm H2 O2 . More importantly, H2 O2 tolerance by CYP154C8 was evident in the very low heme oxidation rate constant (K) even at high concentrations of H2 O2 . Our results demonstrate that alternative redox partners and oxidizing agents influence the catalytic efficiency and product distribution of a cytochrome P450 enzyme. More importantly, these choices affected the type and selectivity of reaction catalyzed by the P450 enzyme.

Tracking Down a New Steroid-Hydroxylating Promiscuous Cytochrome†P450: CYP154C8 from Streptomyces sp. W2233-SM.

CYP154C8 from Streptomyces sp. has been identified as a new cytochrome P450 with substrate flexibility towards different sets of steroids. In vitro treatment of these steroids with CYP154C8 revealed interesting product formation patterns with the same group of steroids. NMR study revealed the major product of corticosterone to be hydroxylated at the C21 position, whereas progesterone, androstenedione, testosterone, and 11-ketoprogesterone were exclusively hydroxylated at the 16α position. However, the 16α-hydroxylated product of progesterone was further hydroxylated to yield dihydroxylated products. 16-hydroxyprogesterone was hydroxylated at two positions to yield dihydroxylated products: 2α,16α-dihydroxyprogesterone and 6ß,16α-dihydroxyprogesterone. To the best of our knowledge, this is the first report of generation of such products through enzymatic hydroxylation by a CYP450. In view of the importance of modified steroids as pharmaceutical components, CYP154C8 has immense potential for utilization in bioproduction of hydroxylated derivative compounds to be directly employed for pharmaceutical applications.

Crystal Structure and Functional Characterization of a Cytochrome P450 (BaCYP106A2) from Bacillus sp. PAMC 23377.

Bacterial cytochrome P450 (CYP) steroid hydroxylases are effectively useful in the pharmaceutical industry for introducing hydroxyl groups to a wide range of steroids. We found a putative CYP steroid hydroxylase (BaCYP106A2) from the bacterium Bacillus sp. PAMC 23377 isolated from Kara Sea of the Arctic Ocean, showing 94% sequence similarity with BmCYP106A2 (Bacillus megaterium ATCC 13368). In this study, soluble BaCYP106A2 was overexpressed to evaluate its substrate-binding activity. The substrate affinity (Kd value) to 4-androstenedione was 387 ± 37 µM. Moreover, the crystal structure of BaCYP106A2 was determined at 2.7 Å resolution. Structural analysis suggested that the α8-α9 loop region of BaCYP106A2 is intrinsically mobile and might be important for initial ligand binding. The hydroxyl activity of BaCYP106A2 was identified using in vitro enzyme assays. Its activity was confirmed with two kinds of steroid substrates, 4-androstenedione and nandrolone, using chromatography and mass spectrometry methods. The main products were monohydroxylated compounds with high conversion yields. This is the second study on the structure of CYP106A steroid hydroxylases, and should contribute new insight into the interactions of bacterial CYP106A with steroid substrates, providing baseline data for studying the CYP106A steroid hydroxylase from the structural and enzymatic perspectives.