Molecular basis for dual functions in pilus assembly modulated by the lid of a pilus-specific sortase.

The biphasic assembly of Gram-positive pili begins with the covalent polymerization of distinct pilins catalyzed by a pilus-specific sortase, followed by the cell wall anchoring of the resulting polymers mediated by the housekeeping sortase. In Actinomyces oris, the pilus-specific sortase SrtC2 not only polymerizes FimA pilins to assemble type 2 fimbriae with CafA at the tip, but it can also act as the anchoring sortase, linking both FimA polymers and SrtC1-catalyzed FimP polymers (type 1 fimbriae) to peptidoglycan when the housekeeping sortase SrtA is inactive. To date, the structure-function determinants governing the unique substrate specificity and dual enzymatic activity of SrtC2 have not been illuminated. Here, we present the crystal structure of SrtC2 solved to 2.10-Å resolution. SrtC2 harbors a canonical sortase fold and a lid typical for class C sortases and additional features specific to SrtC2. Structural, biochemical, and mutational analyses of SrtC2 reveal that the extended lid of SrtC2 modulates its dual activity. Specifically, we demonstrate that the polymerizing activity of SrtC2 is still maintained by alanine-substitution, partial deletion, and replacement of the SrtC2 lid with the SrtC1 lid. Strikingly, pilus incorporation of CafA is significantly reduced by these mutations, leading to compromised polymicrobial interactions mediated by CafA. In a srtA mutant, the partial deletion of the SrtC2 lid reduces surface anchoring of FimP polymers, and the lid-swapping mutation enhances this process, while both mutations diminish surface anchoring of FimA pili. Evidently, the extended lid of SrtC2 enables the enzyme the cell wall-anchoring activity in a substrate-selective fashion.

The respiratory enzyme complex Rnf is vital for metabolic adaptation and virulence in Fusobacterium nucleatum.

IMPORTANCE: This paper illuminates the significant question of how the oral commensal Fusobacterium nucleatum adapts to the metabolically changing environments of several extra-oral sites such as placenta and colon to promote various diseases as an opportunistic pathogen. We demonstrate here that the highly conserved Rhodobacter nitrogen-fixation complex, commonly known as Rnf complex, is key to fusobacterial metabolic adaptation and virulence. Genetic disruption of this Rnf complex causes global defects in polymicrobial interaction, biofilm formation, cell growth and morphology, hydrogen sulfide production, and ATP synthesis. Targeted metabolomic profiling demonstrates that the loss of this respiratory enzyme significantly diminishes catabolism of numerous amino acids, which negatively impacts fusobacterial virulence as tested in a preterm birth model in mice.

Molecular basis for dual functions in pilus assembly modulated by the lid of a pilus-specific sortase.

In Gram-positive bacteria, the biphasic assembly of pili begins with the covalent polymerization of distinct pilins catalyzed by a pilus-specific sortase, followed by anchoring of the resulting polymers to the cell wall mediated by the housekeeping sortase. Uniquely, in Actinomyces oris , the SrtC2 sortase not only polymerizes FimA pilins to assemble type 2 fimbriae, but it can also act as the anchoring sortase, which joins both FimA polymers and SrtC1-catalyzed FimP polymers (type 1 fimbriae) to peptidoglycan when the housekeeping sortase SrtA is inactive. To date, the structure-function determinants governing the unique substrate specificity and dual enzymatic activity of SrtC2 have not been illuminated. Here, we present the crystal structure of SrtC2 solved to 2.10-Å resolution. SrtC2 harbors a canonical sortase fold and a lid typical for class C sortases and additional features specific to SrtC2. Structural comparisons of SrtC2 and SrtC1 reveal that the extended lid of SrtC2 modulates its dual activity. Specifically, we demonstrate that the polymerizing activity of SrtC2 is unaffected by alanine-substitution, partial deletion, and replacement of the SrtC2 lid with the SrtC1 lid. Strikingly, pilus incorporation of the tip adhesin CafA is significantly reduced by these mutations, leading to compromised polymicrobial interactions that require CafA. In a srtA mutant, the partial deletion of the SrtC2 lid reduces surface anchoring of FimP polymers, and the lid-swapping mutation enhances this process, while both mutations diminish surface anchoring of FimA pili. Evidently, the extended lid of SrtC2 enables the enzyme the cell wall-anchoring activity in a substrate-selective fashion.

The respiratory enzyme complex Rnf is vital for metabolic adaptation and virulence in Fusobacterium nucleatum.

A prominent oral commensal and opportunistic pathogen, Fusobacterium nucleatum can traverse to extra-oral sites such as placenta and colon, promoting adverse pregnancy outcomes and colorectal cancer, respectively. How this anaerobe sustains many metabolically changing environments enabling its virulence potential remains unclear. Informed by our genome-wide transposon mutagenesis, we report here that the highly conserved Rnf complex, encoded by the rnfCDGEAB gene cluster, is key to fusobacterial metabolic adaptation and virulence. Genetic disruption of the Rnf complex via non-polar, in-frame deletion of rnfC (Δ rnfC ) abrogates polymicrobial interaction (or coaggregation) associated with adhesin RadD and biofilm formation. The defect in coaggregation is not due to reduced cell surface of RadD, but rather an increased level of extracellular lysine, which binds RadD and inhibits coaggregation. Indeed, removal of extracellular lysine via washing Δ rnfC cells restores coaggregation, while addition of lysine inhibits this process. These phenotypes mirror that of a mutant (Δ kamAΔ ) that fails to metabolize extracellular lysine. Strikingly, the Δ rnfC mutant is defective in ATP production, cell growth, cell morphology, and expression of the enzyme MegL that produces hydrogen sulfide from cysteine. Targeted metabolic profiling demonstrated that catabolism of many amino acids, including histidine and lysine, is altered in Δ rnfC cells, thereby reducing production of ATP and metabolites including H2S and butyrate. Most importantly, we show that the Δ rnfC mutant is severely attenuated in a mouse model of preterm birth. The indispensable function of Rnf complex in fusobacterial pathogenesis via modulation of bacterial metabolism makes it an attractive target for developing therapeutic intervention.

A cryptic oxidoreductase safeguards oxidative protein folding in Corynebacterium diphtheriae.

In many gram-positive Actinobacteria, including Actinomyces oris and Corynebacterium matruchotii, the conserved thiol-disulfide oxidoreductase MdbA that catalyzes oxidative folding of exported proteins is essential for bacterial viability by an unidentified mechanism. Intriguingly, in Corynebacterium diphtheriae, the deletion of mdbA blocks cell growth only at 37 °C but not at 30 °C, suggesting the presence of alternative oxidoreductase enzyme(s). By isolating spontaneous thermotolerant revertants of the mdbA mutant at 37 °C, we obtained genetic suppressors, all mapped to a single T-to-G mutation within the promoter region of tsdA, causing its elevated expression. Strikingly, increased expression of tsdA-via suppressor mutations or a constitutive promoter-rescues the pilus assembly and toxin production defects of this mutant, hence compensating for the loss of mdbA. Structural, genetic, and biochemical analyses demonstrated TsdA is a membrane-tethered thiol-disulfide oxidoreductase with a conserved CxxC motif that can substitute for MdbA in mediating oxidative folding of pilin and toxin substrates. Together with our observation that tsdA expression is upregulated at nonpermissive temperature (40 °C) in wild-type cells, we posit that TsdA has evolved as a compensatory thiol-disulfide oxidoreductase that safeguards oxidative protein folding in C. diphtheriae against thermal stress.

Genetic Determinants of Hydrogen Sulfide Biosynthesis in Fusobacterium nucleatum Are Required for Bacterial Fitness, Antibiotic Sensitivity, and Virulence.

The Gram-negative anaerobe Fusobacterium nucleatum is a major producer of hydrogen sulfide (H2S), a volatile sulfur compound that causes halitosis. Here, we dissected the genetic determinants of H2S production and its role in bacterial fitness and virulence in this important member of the oral microbiome. F. nucleatum possesses four enzymes, CysK1, CysK2, Hly, and MegL, that presumably metabolize l-cysteine to H2S, and CysK1 was previously shown to account for most H2S production in vitro, based on correlations of enzymatic activities with gene expression at mid-log phase. Our molecular studies showed that cysK1 and megL were highly expressed at the late exponential growth phase, concomitant with high-level H2S production, while the expression levels of the other genes remained substantially lower during all growth phases. Although the genetic deletion of cysK1 without supplementation with a CysK1-catalyzed product, lanthionine, caused cell death, the conditional ΔcysK1 mutant and a mutant lacking hly were highly proficient in H2S production. In contrast, a mutant devoid of megL showed drastically reduced H2S production, and a cysK2 mutant showed only minor deficiencies. Intriguingly, the exposure of these mutants to various antibiotics revealed that only the megL mutant displayed altered susceptibility compared to the parental strain: partial sensitivity to nalidixic acid and resistance to kanamycin. Most significantly, the megL mutant was attenuated in virulence in a mouse model of preterm birth, with considerable defects in the spread to amniotic fluid and the colonization of the placenta and fetus. Evidently, the l-methionine γ-lyase MegL is a major H2S-producing enzyme in fusobacterial cells that significantly contributes to fusobacterial virulence and antibiotic susceptibility. IMPORTANCE Fusobacterium nucleatum is a key commensal anaerobe of the human oral cavity that plays a significant role in oral biofilm development and contributes to additional pathologies at extraoral sites, such as promoting preterm birth and colorectal cancer. Although F. nucleatum is known as a major producer of hydrogen sulfide (H2S), its genetic determinants and physiological functions are not well understood. By a combination of bacterial genetics, biochemical methods, and in vivo models of infection, here, we demonstrate that the l-methionine γ-lyase MegL not only is a major H2S-producing enzyme of F. nucleatum but also significantly contributes to the antibiotic susceptibility and virulence of this organism.

A conserved signal-peptidase antagonist modulates membrane homeostasis of actinobacterial sortase critical for surface morphogenesis.

Most Actinobacteria encode a small transmembrane protein, whose gene lies immediately downstream of the housekeeping sortase coding for a transpeptidase that anchors many extracellular proteins to the Gram-positive bacterial cell wall. Here, we uncover the hitherto unknown function of this class of conserved proteins, which we name SafA, as a topological modulator of sortase in the oral Actinobacterium Actinomyces oris. Genetic deletion of safA induces cleavage and excretion of the otherwise predominantly membrane-bound SrtA in wild-type cells. Strikingly, the safA mutant, although viable, exhibits severe abnormalities in cell morphology, pilus assembly, surface protein localization, and polymicrobial interactions-the phenotypes that are mirrored by srtA depletion. The pleiotropic defect of the safA mutant is rescued by ectopic expression of safA from not only A. oris, but also Corynebacterium diphtheriae or Corynebacterium matruchotii. Importantly, the SrtA N terminus harbors a tripartite-domain feature typical of a bacterial signal peptide, including a cleavage motif AXA, mutations in which prevent SrtA cleavage mediated by the signal peptidase LepB2. Bacterial two-hybrid analysis demonstrates that SafA and SrtA directly interact. This interaction involves a conserved motif FPW within the exoplasmic face of SafA, since mutations of this motif abrogate SafA-SrtA interaction and induce SrtA cleavage and excretion as observed in the safA mutant. Evidently, SafA is a membrane-imbedded antagonist of signal peptidase that safeguards and maintains membrane homeostasis of the housekeeping sortase SrtA, a central player of cell surface assembly.

The Fused Methionine Sulfoxide Reductase MsrAB Promotes Oxidative Stress Defense and Bacterial Virulence in Fusobacterium nucleatum.

Fusobacterium nucleatum, an anaerobic Gram-negative bacterium frequently found in the human oral cavity and some extra-oral sites, is implicated in several important diseases: periodontitis, adverse pregnancy outcomes, and colorectal cancer. To date, how this obligate anaerobe copes with oxidative stress and host immunity within multiple human tissues remains unknown. Here, we uncovered a critical role in this process of a multigene locus encoding a single, fused methionine sulfoxide reductase (MsrAB), a two-component signal transduction system (ModRS), and thioredoxin (Trx)- and cytochrome c (CcdA)-like proteins, which are induced when fusobacterial cells are exposed to hydrogen peroxide. Comparative transcriptome analysis revealed that the response regulator ModR regulates a large regulon that includes trx, ccdA, and many metabolic genes. Significantly, specific mutants of the msrAB locus, including msrAB, are sensitive to reactive oxygen species and defective in adherence/invasion of colorectal epithelial cells. Strikingly, the msrAB mutant is also defective in survival in macrophages, and it is severely attenuated in virulence in a mouse model of preterm birth, consistent with its failure to spread to the amniotic fluid and colonize the placenta. Clearly, the MsrAB system regulated by the two-component system ModRS represents a major oxidative stress defense pathway that protects fusobacteria against oxidative damage in immune cells and confers virulence by enabling attachment and invasion of multiple target tissues. IMPORTANCE F. nucleatum colonizes various human tissues, including oral cavity, placenta, and colon. How this obligate anaerobe withstands oxidative stress in host immune cells has not been described. We report here that F. nucleatum possesses a five-gene locus encoding a fused methionine sulfoxide reductase (MsrAB), a two-component signal transduction system (ModRS), and thioredoxin- and cytochrome c-like proteins. Regulated by ModRS, MsrAB is essential for resistance to reactive oxygen species, adherence/invasion of colorectal epithelial cells, and survival in macrophage. Unable to colonize placenta and spread to amniotic fluid, the msrAB mutant failed to induce preterm birth in a murine model.

A cell wall-anchored glycoprotein confers resistance to cation stress in Actinomyces oris biofilms.

Actinomyces oris plays an important role in oral biofilm development. Like many gram-positive bacteria, A. oris produces a sizable number of surface proteins that are anchored to bacterial peptidoglycan by a conserved transpeptidase named the housekeeping sortase SrtA; however, the biological role of many A. oris surface proteins in biofilm formation is largely unknown. Here, we report that the glycoprotein GspA-a genetic suppressor of srtA deletion lethality-not only promotes biofilm formation but also maintains cell membrane integrity under cation stress. In comparison to wild-type cells, under elevated concentrations of mono- and divalent cations the formation of mono- and multi-species biofilms by mutant cells devoid of gspA was significantly diminished, although planktonic growth of both cell types in the presence of cations was indistinguishable. Because gspA overexpression is lethal to cells lacking gspA and srtA, we performed a genetic screen to identify GspA determinants involving cell viability. DNA sequencing and biochemical characterizations of viable clones revealed that mutations of two critical cysteine residues and a serine residue severely affected GspA glycosylation and biofilm formation. Furthermore, mutant cells lacking gspA were markedly sensitive to sodium dodecyl sulfate, a detergent that solubilizes the cytoplasmic membranes, suggesting the cell envelope of the gspA mutant was altered. Consistent with this observation, the gspA mutant exhibited increased membrane permeability, independent of GspA glycosylation, compared to the wild-type strain. Altogether, the results support the notion that the cell wall-anchored glycoprotein GspA provides a defense mechanism against cation stress in biofilm development promoted by A. oris.

Genetic and molecular determinants of polymicrobial interactions in Fusobacterium nucleatum.

A gram-negative colonizer of the oral cavity, Fusobacterium nucleatum not only interacts with many pathogens in the oral microbiome but also has the ability to spread to extraoral sites including placenta and amniotic fluid, promoting preterm birth. To date, however, the molecular mechanism of interspecies interactions-termed coaggregation-by F. nucleatum and how coaggregation affects bacterial virulence remain poorly defined. Here, we employed genome-wide transposon mutagenesis to uncover fusobacterial coaggregation factors, revealing the intertwined function of a two-component signal transduction system (TCS), named CarRS, and a lysine metabolic pathway in regulating the critical coaggregation factor RadD. Transcriptome analysis shows that CarR modulates a large regulon including radD and lysine metabolic genes, such as kamA and kamD, the expression of which are highly up-regulated in the ΔcarR mutant. Significantly, the native culture medium of ΔkamA or ΔkamD mutants builds up abundant amounts of free lysine, which blocks fusobacterial coaggregation with streptococci. Our demonstration that lysine-conjugated beads trap RadD from the membrane lysates suggests that lysine utilizes RadD as its receptor to act as a metabolic inhibitor of coaggregation. Lastly, using a mouse model of preterm birth, we show that fusobacterial virulence is significantly attenuated with the ΔkamA and ΔcarR mutants, in contrast to the enhanced virulence phenotype observed upon diminishing RadD (ΔradD or ΔcarS mutant). Evidently, F. nucleatum employs the TCS CarRS and environmental lysine to modulate RadD-mediated interspecies interaction, virulence, and nutrient acquisition to thrive in the adverse environment of oral biofilms and extraoral sites.

Ribonuclease J-Mediated mRNA Turnover Modulates Cell Shape, Metabolism and Virulence in Corynebacterium diphtheriae.

Controlled RNA degradation is a crucial process in bacterial cell biology for maintaining proper transcriptome homeostasis and adaptation to changing environments. mRNA turnover in many Gram-positive bacteria involves a specialized ribonuclease called RNase J (RnJ). To date, however, nothing is known about this process in the diphtheria-causative pathogen Corynebacterium diphtheriae, nor is known the identity of this ribonuclease in this organism. Here, we report that C. diphtheriae DIP1463 encodes a predicted RnJ homolog, comprised of a conserved N-terminal ß-lactamase domain, followed by ß-CASP and C-terminal domains. A recombinant protein encompassing the ß-lactamase domain alone displays 5'-exoribonuclease activity, which is abolished by alanine-substitution of the conserved catalytic residues His186 and His188. Intriguingly, deletion of DIP1463/rnj in C. diphtheriae reduces bacterial growth and generates cell shape abnormality with markedly augmented cell width. Comparative RNA-seq analysis revealed that RnJ controls a large regulon encoding many factors predicted to be involved in biosynthesis, regulation, transport, and iron acquisition. One upregulated gene in the ∆rnj mutant is ftsH, coding for a membrane protease (FtsH) involved in cell division, whose overexpression in the wild-type strain also caused cell-width augmentation. Critically, the ∆rnj mutant is severely attenuated in virulence in a Caenorhabditis elegans model of infection, while the FtsH-overexpressing and toxin-less strains exhibit full virulence as the wild-type strain. Evidently, RNase J is a key ribonuclease in C. diphtheriae that post-transcriptionally influences the expression of numerous factors vital to corynebacterial cell physiology and virulence. Our findings have significant implications for basic biological processes and mechanisms of corynebacterial pathogenesis.

Anchoring surface proteins to the bacterial cell wall by sortase enzymes: how it started and what we know now.

In Gram-positive bacteria, the peptidoglycan serves as a placeholder for surface display of a unique class of monomeric and polymeric proteins, or pili - the precursors of which harbor a cell wall sorting signal with LPXTG motif that is recognized by a conserved transpeptidase enzyme called sortase. Since this original discovery over two decades ago, extensive genetic, biochemical and structural studies have illuminated the basic mechanisms of sortase-mediated cell wall anchoring of surface proteins and pili. We now know how LPXTG-containing surface proteins are folded post-translocationally, how sortase enzymes recognize substrates, and how a remnant of the cell wall sorting signal modulates intramembrane signaling. In this review, we will highlight new findings from a few model experimental paradigms and present future prospects for the field.

New Paradigms of Pilus Assembly Mechanisms in Gram-Positive Actinobacteria.

Adhesive pili in Gram-positive bacteria represent a variety of extracellular multiprotein polymers that mediate bacterial colonization of specific host tissues and associated pathogenesis. Pili are assembled in two distinct but coupled steps, an orderly crosslinking of pilin monomers and subsequent anchoring of the polymer to peptidoglycan, catalyzed by two transpeptidase enzymes - the pilus-specific sortase and the housekeeping sortase. Here, we review this biphasic assembly mechanism based on studies of two prototypical models, the heterotrimeric pili in Corynebacterium diphtheriae and the heterodimeric pili in Actinomyces oris, highlighting some newly emerged basic paradigms. The disparate mechanisms of protein ligation mediated by the pilus-specific sortase and the spatial positioning of adhesive pili on the cell surface modulated by the housekeeping sortase are among the notable highlights.

Cell-to-cell interaction requires optimal positioning of a pilus tip adhesin modulated by gram-positive transpeptidase enzymes.

Assembly of pili on the gram-positive bacterial cell wall involves 2 conserved transpeptidase enzymes named sortases: One for polymerization of pilin subunits and another for anchoring pili to peptidoglycan. How this machine controls pilus length and whether pilus length is critical for cell-to-cell interactions remain unknown. We report here in Actinomyces oris, a key colonizer in the development of oral biofilms, that genetic disruption of its housekeeping sortase SrtA generates exceedingly long pili, catalyzed by its pilus-specific sortase SrtC2 that possesses both pilus polymerization and cell wall anchoring functions. Remarkably, the srtA-deficient mutant fails to mediate interspecies interactions, or coaggregation, even though the coaggregation factor CafA is present at the pilus tip. Increasing ectopic expression of srtA in the mutant progressively shortens pilus length and restores coaggregation accordingly, while elevated levels of shaft pilins and SrtC2 produce long pili and block coaggregation by SrtA+ bacteria. With structural studies, we uncovered 2 key structural elements in SrtA that partake in recognition of pilin substrates and regulate pilus length by inducing the capture and transfer of pilus polymers to the cell wall. Evidently, coaggregation requires proper positioning of the tip adhesin CafA via modulation of pilus length by the housekeeping sortase SrtA.

In vitro reconstitution of sortase-catalyzed pilus polymerization reveals structural elements involved in pilin cross-linking.

Covalently cross-linked pilus polymers displayed on the cell surface of Gram-positive bacteria are assembled by class C sortase enzymes. These pilus-specific transpeptidases located on the bacterial membrane catalyze a two-step protein ligation reaction, first cleaving the LPXTG motif of one pilin protomer to form an acyl-enzyme intermediate and then joining the terminal Thr to the nucleophilic Lys residue residing within the pilin motif of another pilin protomer. To date, the determinants of class C enzymes that uniquely enable them to construct pili remain unknown. Here, informed by high-resolution crystal structures of corynebacterial pilus-specific sortase (SrtA) and utilizing a structural variant of the enzyme (SrtA2M), whose catalytic pocket has been unmasked by activating mutations, we successfully reconstituted in vitro polymerization of the cognate major pilin (SpaA). Mass spectrometry, electron microscopy, and biochemical experiments authenticated that SrtA2M synthesizes pilus fibers with correct Lys-Thr isopeptide bonds linking individual pilins via a thioacyl intermediate. Structural modeling of the SpaA-SrtA-SpaA polymerization intermediate depicts SrtA2M sandwiched between the N- and C-terminal domains of SpaA harboring the reactive pilin and LPXTG motifs, respectively. Remarkably, the model uncovered a conserved TP(Y/L)XIN(S/T)H signature sequence following the catalytic Cys, in which the alanine substitutions abrogated cross-linking activity but not cleavage of LPXTG. These insights and our evidence that SrtA2M can terminate pilus polymerization by joining the terminal pilin SpaB to SpaA and catalyze ligation of isolated SpaA domains in vitro provide a facile and versatile platform for protein engineering and bio-conjugation that has major implications for biotechnology.

Forward Genetic Dissection of Biofilm Development by Fusobacterium nucleatum: Novel Functions of Cell Division Proteins FtsX and EnvC.

Fusobacterium nucleatum is a key member of the human oral biofilm. It is also implicated in preterm birth and colorectal cancer. To facilitate basic studies of fusobacterial virulence, we describe here a versatile transposon mutagenesis procedure and a pilot screen for mutants defective in biofilm formation. Out of 10 independent biofilm-defective mutants isolated, the affected genes included the homologs of the Escherichia coli cell division proteins FtsX and EnvC, the electron transport protein RnfA, and four proteins with unknown functions. Next, a facile new gene deletion method demonstrated that nonpolar, in-frame deletion of ftsX or envC produces viable bacteria that are highly filamentous due to defective cell division. Transmission electron and cryo-electron microscopy revealed that the ΔftsX and ΔenvC mutant cells remain joined with apparent constriction, and scanning electron microscopy (EM) uncovered a smooth cell surface without the microfolds present in wild-type cells. FtsX and EnvC proteins interact with each other as well as a common set of interacting partners, many with unknown function. Last, biofilm development is altered when cell division is blocked by MinC overproduction; however, unlike the phenotypes of ΔftsX and ΔenvC mutants, a weakly adherent biofilm is formed, and the wild-type rugged cell surface is maintained. Therefore, FtsX and EnvC may perform novel functions in Fusobacterium cell biology. This is the first report of an unbiased approach to uncover genetic determinants of fusobacterial biofilm development. It points to an intriguing link among cytokinesis, cell surface dynamics, and biofilm formation, whose molecular underpinnings remain to be elucidated.IMPORTANCE Little is known about the virulence mechanisms and associated factors in F. nucleatum, due mainly to the lack of convenient genetic tools for this organism. We employed two efficient genetic strategies to identify F. nucleatum biofilm-defective mutants, revealing FtsX and EnvC among seven biofilm-associated factors. Electron microscopy established cell division defects of the ΔftsX and ΔenvC mutants, accompanied with a smooth cell surface, unlike the microfold, rugged appearance of wild-type bacteria. Proteomic studies demonstrated that FtsX and EnvC interact with each other as well as a set of common and unique interacting proteins, many with unknown functions. Importantly, blocking cell division by MinC overproduction led to formation of a weakly adherent biofilm, without alteration of the wild-type cell surface. Thus, this work links cell division and surface dynamics to biofilm development and lays a foundation for future genetic and biochemical investigations of basic cellular processes in this clinically significant pathogen.

A thiol-disulfide oxidoreductase of the Gram-positive pathogen Corynebacterium diphtheriae is essential for viability, pilus assembly, toxin production and virulence.

The Gram-positive pathogen Corynebacterium diphtheriae exports through the Sec apparatus many extracellular proteins that include the key virulence factors diphtheria toxin and the adhesive pili. How these proteins attain their native conformations after translocation as unfolded precursors remains elusive. The fact that the majority of these exported proteins contain multiple cysteine residues and that several membrane-bound oxidoreductases are encoded in the corynebacterial genome suggests the existence of an oxidative protein-folding pathway in this organism. Here we show that the shaft pilin SpaA harbors a disulfide bond in vivo and alanine substitution of these cysteines abrogates SpaA polymerization and leads to the secretion of degraded SpaA peptides. We then identified a thiol-disulfide oxidoreductase (MdbA), whose structure exhibits a conserved thioredoxin-like domain with a CPHC active site. Remarkably, deletion of mdbA results in a severe temperature-sensitive cell division phenotype. This mutant also fails to assemble pilus structures and is greatly defective in toxin production. Consistent with these defects, the ΔmdbA mutant is attenuated in a guinea pig model of diphtheritic toxemia. Given its diverse cellular functions in cell division, pilus assembly and toxin production, we propose that MdbA is a component of the general oxidative folding machine in C. diphtheriae.

A Disulfide Bond-forming Machine Is Linked to the Sortase-mediated Pilus Assembly Pathway in the Gram-positive Bacterium Actinomyces oris.

Export of cell surface pilins in Gram-positive bacteria likely occurs by the translocation of unfolded precursor polypeptides; however, how the unfolded pilins gain their native conformation is presently unknown. Here, we present physiological studies to demonstrate that the FimA pilin of Actinomyces oris contains two disulfide bonds. Alanine substitution of cysteine residues forming the C-terminal disulfide bridge abrogates pilus assembly, in turn eliminating biofilm formation and polymicrobial interaction. Transposon mutagenesis of A. oris yielded a mutant defective in adherence to Streptococcus oralis, and revealed the essential role of a vitamin K epoxide reductase (VKOR) gene in pilus assembly. Targeted deletion of vkor results in the same defects, which are rescued by ectopic expression of VKOR, but not a mutant containing an alanine substitution in its conserved CXXC motif. Depletion of mdbA, which encodes a membrane-bound thiol-disulfide oxidoreductase, abrogates pilus assembly and alters cell morphology. Remarkably, overexpression of MdbA or a counterpart from Corynebacterium diphtheriae, rescues the Δvkor mutant. By alkylation assays, we demonstrate that VKOR is required for MdbA reoxidation. Furthermore, crystallographic studies reveal that A. oris MdbA harbors a thioredoxin-like fold with the conserved CXXC active site. Consistently, each MdbA enzyme catalyzes proper disulfide bond formation within FimA in vitro that requires the catalytic CXXC motif. Because the majority of signal peptide-containing proteins encoded by A. oris possess multiple Cys residues, we propose that MdbA and VKOR constitute a major folding machine for the secretome of this organism. This oxidative protein folding pathway may be a common feature in Actinobacteria.

Lethality of sortase depletion in Actinomyces oris caused by excessive membrane accumulation of a surface glycoprotein.

Sortase, a cysteine-transpeptidase conserved in Gram-positive bacteria, anchors on the cell wall many surface proteins that facilitate bacterial pathogenesis and fitness. Genetic disruption of the housekeeping sortase in several Gram-positive pathogens reported thus far attenuates virulence, but not bacterial growth. Paradoxically, we discovered that depletion of the housekeeping sortase SrtA was lethal for Actinomyces oris; yet, all of its predicted cell wall-anchored protein substrates (AcaA-N) were individually dispensable for cell viability. Using Tn5-transposon mutagenesis to identify factors that upend lethality of srtA deletion, we uncovered a set of genetic suppressors harbouring transposon insertions within genes of a locus encoding AcaC and a LytR-CpsA-Psr (LCP)-like protein. AcaC was shown to be highly glycosylated and dependent on LCP for its glycosylation. Upon SrtA depletion, the glycosylated form of AcaC, hereby renamed GspA, was accumulated in the membrane. Overexpression of GspA in a mutant lacking gspA and srtA was lethal; conversely, cells overexpressing a GspA mutant missing a membrane-localization domain were viable. The results reveal a unique glycosylation pathway in A. oris that is coupled to cell wall anchoring catalysed by sortase SrtA. Significantly, this novel phenomenon of glyco-stress provides convenient cell-based assays for developing a new class of inhibitors against Gram-positive pathogens.

Pilus hijacking by a bacterial coaggregation factor critical for oral biofilm development.

The formation of dental plaque, a highly complex biofilm that causes gingivitis and periodontitis, requires specific adherence among many oral microbes, including the coaggregation of Actinomyces oris with Streptococcus oralis that helps to seed biofilm development. Here, we report the discovery of a key coaggregation factor for this process. This protein, which we named coaggregation factor A (CafA), is one of 14 cell surface proteins with the LPXTG motif predicted in A. oris MG1, whose function was hitherto unknown. By systematic mutagenesis of each of these genes and phenotypic characterization, we found that the Actinomyces/Streptococcus coaggregation is only abolished by deletion of cafA. Subsequent biochemical and cytological experiments revealed that CafA constitutes the tip of a unique form of the type 2 fimbria long known for its role in coaggregation. The direct and predominant role of CafA in adherence is evident from the fact that CafA or an antibody against CafA inhibits coaggregation, whereas the shaft protein FimA or a polyclonal antibody against FimA has no effect. Remarkably, FimA polymerization was blocked by deletion of genes for both CafA and FimB, the previously described tip protein of the type 2 fimbria. Together, these results indicate that some surface proteins not linked to a pilus gene cluster in Gram-positive bacteria may hijack the pilus. These unique tip proteins displayed on a common pilus shaft may serve distinct physiological functions. Furthermore, the pilus shaft assembly in Gram-positive bacteria may require a tip, as is true for certain Gram-negative bacterial pili.