Validation of the Coach Behavior in Sports Questionnaire: Towards dynamic assessments using the circumplex model for coach behavior.

The development of the circumplex model for coach behavior recently provided researchers an integrative model to assess coach behavior. While the circumplex model has currently only been deployed in cross-sectional research designs using the Situations in Sports questionnaire (SISQ), it has clear potential within research on dynamics of coach behavior. However, the SISQ consists of vignette-based situations and is too extensive for such frequent administrations. Within the present study we therefore developed the Coach Behavior in Sports Questionnaire (CBSQ), a 32-item alternative for the SISQ which consists of general items rather than vignette-based situations. First, content validity of 54 initial pilot CBSQ items was tested in a sample of 34 expert coaches. Second, construct validity, predictive validity, and reliability of the 32-item CBSQ was tested in a sample of 689 athletes and 420 coaches. Third, within-person variability of coach behavior was longitudinally assessed using the 32-item CBSQ during a five-week training and game period in a sample of 31 coach-athlete dyads. The 32-item CBSQ showed to be a valid and reliable alternative for the SISQ. Also, coach behavior showed considerable within-person variability over the five-week period in all coaching styles and approaches. Additionally, a 24, 16, and 12-item version were tested to provide even shorter alternatives. The CBSQ opens new horizons for future longitudinal research and coach reflection programs based on the circumplex model for coach behavior.

Does Fair Coach Behavior Predict the Quality of Athlete Leadership Among Belgian Volleyball and Basketball Players: The Vital Role of Team Identification and Task Cohesion.

A vast stream of empirical work has revealed that coach and athlete leadership are important determinants of sport teams' functioning and performance. Although coaches have a direct impact on individual and team outcomes, they should also strive to stimulate athletes to take up leadership roles in a qualitative manner. Yet, the relation between coach leadership behavior and the extent of high-quality athlete leadership within teams remains underexposed. Based on organizational justice theory and the social identity approach, the present research tested whether perceived justice of the coach positively predicts the quality of athlete leadership. Furthermore, we examined the role of group dynamic processes (i.e., team identification and task cohesion) within this relation. Belgian volleyball (N = 161) and basketball players (N = 78) were asked to rate the justice of their coach, their team identification, the task cohesion, and the athlete leadership quality in the team. Structural equation modeling indicated that coaches' perceived justice positively predicted the quality of athletes' leadership, and that this relation was established through three intermediate steps (i.e., from team identification to task cohesion, to athlete leadership quality). These results suggest that fair coach behavior does not only bridge the gap between leadership and followership, it also has the potential to improve the quality of athletes' leadership within sport teams. More specifically, findings suggest that coaches' perceived justice cultivates a shared social identity characterized by high levels of players' identification with their team, which in turn increased their perceptions of the team's task cohesion. Finally, this increased task cohesion encouraged the athlete leaders to demonstrate high-quality leadership.

Do coaching style and game circumstances predict athletes' perceived justice of their coach? A longitudinal study in elite handball and volleyball teams.

OBJECTIVE: The present longitudinal study is the first to examine game to game fluctuations of perceived justice of elite volleyball and handball coaches. More specifically, we studied whether coaching style (i.e., need support versus control), coach behaviors (decision justifications), player's status (i.e., starter or substitute), and game result (win/loss) predicted athletes' perceived justice and its fluctuations. METHODS: A longitudinal questionnaire study was performed during 6 consecutive weeks among Belgian female volleyball (N = 57) and male handball players (N = 39). We administered a general questionnaire (i.e., need support/control) the first week, and game-specific questionnaires (i.e., justice, decision justifications, game circumstances) after six consecutive games. Because game-to-game measures (i.e., within-athlete) were nested into individuals (between-athletes) we conducted Hierarchical Linear Modeling to examine the hypotheses. RESULTS: Multilevel analyses showed that 49% of the variance of perceived justice was situated at the within-athlete level. Furthermore, coaches' need support and the provision of decision justifications were positive predictors of athletes' perceived justice of the coach. More specific, the impact of justifications was less strong in a high need supportive environment and stronger in a high controlling environment. Finally, both the status of the player and the game result were negative predictors of athletes' perceived justice. CONCLUSIONS: We can conclude that athletes' perceived justice of their coach shifts considerably from game-to-game. Furthermore, the coaching style and coaching behaviors can help to overcome the negative effects of specific game circumstances such as being a substitute or losing a game on athletes' perceived justice of the coach.

"Yes, we can!": Perceptions of collective efficacy sources in volleyball.

Collective efficacy can be defined as a group's shared confidence that they will successfully achieve their goal. We examined which behaviours and events are perceived as sources of collective efficacy beliefs in a volleyball context. In study 1, volleyball coaches from the highest volleyball leagues (n = 33) in Belgium indicated the most important sources of collective efficacy. This list was then adapted based on the literature and on feedback given by an expert focus group, resulting in a 40-item questionnaire. In Study 2, coaches and players from all levels of volleyball in Belgium (n = 2365) rated each of these sources on their predictive value for collective efficacy. A principal component analysis revealed that the 40 sources could be divided into eight internally consistent factors. Positive supportive communication (e.g., enthusiasm after making a point) was identified as the factor most predictive for positive collective efficacy beliefs. The factor referring to the negative emotional reactions of players (e.g., discouraging body language) was the most predictive for negative collective efficacy beliefs. These findings offer a starting point for the design of continuous measurements of collective efficacy through observation.