Effect of the Material Properties and Knee Position to the Bone Bruise Pattern in Skeletally Mature and Immature Subjects.

A bone bruise is generated by a bony collision that could occur when the anterior cruciate ligament (ACL) is injured, and its pattern reflects the injury mechanism and skeletal maturity. Thus, the bone bruise pattern is useful to predict a subject-specific injury mechanism, although the sensitivity and/or effect of the material property and the knee position at injury is still unclear. The objective of the present study was to determine the effect of the material property and knee position on the bone bruise pattern in skeletally mature and immature subjects using finite element analysis. Finite element models were created from a magnetic resonance (MR) image in the sagittal plane of a skeletally mature (25 y. o.) and immature (9 y. o.) male subject. The femur and tibia were collided at 2 m/s to simulate the impact trauma and determine the maximum principal stress. The analysis was performed at 15, 30, and 45 deg of knee flexion, and neutral, 10 mm anterior and posterior translated position at each knee flexion angle. Although high stress was distributed toward the metaphysis area in the mature model, the stress did not cross the growth plate in the immature model. The size of the stress area was larger in the mature model than those in the immature model. The location of the stress area changed depending on the joint position. Young's modulus of cartilage and trabecular bone also affected the location of the stress area. The Young's modulus for the cartilage affected peak stress during impact, while the size of the stress area had almost no change. These results indicate that the bone bruise pattern is strongly associated with subject-specific parameters. In addition, the bone bruise pattern was affected not only by knee position but also by tissue qualities. In conclusion, although the bone bruise distribution was generally called footprint of the injury, the combined evaluation of the quality of the structure and the bone bruise distribution is necessary for properly diagnosing tissue injury based on the MR imaging.

Scapular morphology does not predict supraspinatus tendon tear propagation following an individualised exercise therapy programme.

Purpose: To determine whether scapular morphology could predict isolated supraspinatus tendon tear propagation after exercise therapy. We hypothesised that a larger critical shoulder angle (CSA) and type III acromial morphology predict a positive change in tear size. Methods: Fifty-nine individuals aged 40-70 years with isolated symptomatic high-grade partial or full-thickness supraspinatus tendon tears were included. Individuals participated in a structured, individualised 12-week exercise therapy programme and underwent ultrasound to measure tear size at baseline and 12 months following therapy. Computed tomography images were segmented to create three-dimensional subject-specific bone models and reviewed by three trained clinicians to measure CSA and to determine acromion morphology based on the Bigliani classification. A binary logistic regression was performed to determine the predictive value of CSA and acromion morphology on tear propagation. Results: The CSA was 30.0 ± 5.4°. Thirty-one individuals (52.5%) had type II acromial morphology, followed by type III and type I morphologies (25.4% and 22.0%, respectively); 81.4% experienced no change in tear size, four (6.8%) individuals experienced tear propagation and seven (11.9%) individuals had a negative change in tear size. No significant difference in tear propagation rates based on CSA or acromion morphology (not significant [NS]) was observed. The model predicted tear size status in 81.4% of cases but only predicted tear propagation 8.3% of the time. Overall, CSA and acromion morphology only predicted 24.3% (R 2 = 0.243) of variance in tear propagation (NS). Conclusions: CSA and acromion morphology were NS predictors of tear propagation of the supraspinatus tendon 12 months following an individualised exercise therapy programme. Level of Evidence: II.

Optimal assessment for anterior talofibular ligament injury utilizing stress ultrasound entails internal rotation during plantarflexion.

OBJECTIVES: An optimal load and ankle position for stress ultrasound of the injured anterior talofibular ligament (ATFL) are unknown. The objectives of this study were to compare stress ultrasound and ankle kinematics from a 6 degree-of-freedom (6-DOF) robotic testing system as a reference standard for the evaluation of injured ATFL and suggest cut-off values for ultrasound diagnosis. METHODS: Ten fresh-frozen human cadaveric ankles were used. Loads and ankle positions examined by the 6-DOF robotic testing system were: 40 N anterior load, 1.7 Nm inversion, and 1.7 Nm internal rotation torques at 30° plantarflexion, 15° plantarflexion, and 0° plantarflexion. Bony translations were measured by ultrasound and a robotic testing system under the above conditions. After measuring the intact ankle, ATFL was transected at its fibular attachment under arthroscopy. Correlations between ultrasound and robotic testing systems were calculated with Pearson correlation coefficients. Paired t-tests were performed for comparison of ultrasound measurements of translation between intact and transected ATFL and unloaded and loaded conditions in transected ATFL. RESULTS: Good agreement between ultrasound measurement and that of the robotic testing system was found only in internal rotation at 30° plantarflexion (ICC â€‹= â€‹0.77; 95% confidence interval 0.27-0.94). At 30° plantarflexion, significant differences in ultrasound measurements of translation between intact and transected ATFL (p â€‹< â€‹0.01) were found in response to 1.7 Nm internal rotation torque and nonstress and stress with internal rotation (p â€‹< â€‹0.01) with mean differences of 2.4 â€‹mm and 1.9 â€‹mm, respectively. CONCLUSION: Based on the data of this study, moderate internal rotation and plantarflexion are optimal to evaluate the effects of ATFL injury when clinicians utilize stress ultrasound in patients. LEVEL OF EVIDENCE: III.

Improved joint function when reaching behind the back is associated with patient reported outcomes in individuals with rotator cuff tears following exercise therapy.

BACKGROUND: Reaching behind the back is painful for individuals with rotator cuff tears. The objectives of the study were to determine changes in glenohumeral kinematics when reaching behind the back, passive range of motion (RoM), patient reported outcomes and the relationships between kinematics and patient reported outcomes following exercise therapy. METHODS: Eighty-four individuals with symptomatic isolated supraspinatus tears were recruited for this prospective observational study. Glenohumeral kinematics were measured using biplane radiography during a reaching behind the back movement. Passive glenohumeral internal rotation and patient reported outcome measures were collected. Depending on data normality, appropriate tests were utilized to determine changes in variables. Spearman's correlations were utilized for associations, and Stuart-Maxwell tests for changes in distributions. FINDINGS: Maximum active glenohumeral internal rotation increased by 3.2° (P = 0.001), contact path length decreased by 5.5% glenoid size (P = 0.022), passive glenohumeral internal rotation RoM increased by 4.9° (P = 0.001), and Western Ontario Rotator Cuff Index and American Shoulder and Elbow Surgeons scores increased by 29.8 and 21.1 (P = 0.001), respectively. Changes in Western Ontario Rotator Cuff Index scores positively associated with changes in maximum active glenohumeral internal rotation and negatively associated with changes in contact path lengths (P = 0.008 and P = 0.006, respectively). INTERPRETATION: The reaching behind the back movement was useful in elucidating in-vivo mechanistic changes associated with patient reported outcomes. Glenohumeral joint function and patient reported outcomes improved, where changes in Western Ontario Rotator Cuff Index scores were associated with kinematics. These findings inform clinicians of functional changes following exercise therapy and new targetable treatment factors.

Individuals with rotator cuff tears unsuccessfully treated with exercise therapy have less inferiorly oriented net muscle forces during scapular plane abduction.

Exercise therapy for individuals with rotator cuff tears fails in approximately 25.0 % of cases. One reason for failure of exercise therapy may be the inability to strengthen and balance the muscle forces crossing the glenohumeral joint that act to center the humeral head on the glenoid. The objective of the current study was to compare the magnitude and orientation of the net muscle force pre- and post-exercise therapy between subjects successfully and unsuccessfully (e.g. eventually underwent surgery) treated with a 12-week individualized exercise therapy program. Twelve computational musculoskeletal models (n = 6 successful, n = 6 unsuccessful) were developed in OpenSim (v4.0) that incorporated subject specific tear characteristics, muscle peak isometric force, in-vivo kinematics and bony morphology. The models were driven with experimental kinematics and the magnitude and orientation of the net muscle force was determined during scapular plane abduction at pre- and post-exercise therapy timepoints. Subjects unsuccessfully treated had less inferiorly oriented net muscle forces pre- and post-exercise therapy compared to subjects successfully treated (p = 0.039 & 0.045, respectively). No differences were observed in the magnitude of the net muscle force (p > 0.05). The current study developed novel computational musculoskeletal models with subject specific inputs capable of distinguishing between subjects successfully and unsuccessfully treated with exercise therapy. A less inferiorly oriented net muscle force in subjects unsuccessfully treated may increase the risk of superior migration leading to impingement. Adjustments to exercise therapy programs may be warranted to avoid surgery in subjects at risk of unsuccessful treatment.

A Dynamic Elbow Testing Apparatus for Simulating Elbow Joint Motion in Varying Shoulder Positions.

Purpose: To develop and evaluate the capabilities of a dynamic elbow testing apparatus that simulates unconstrained elbow motion throughout the range of humerothoracic (HTA) abduction. Methods: Elbow flexion was generated by six computer-controlled electromechanical actuators that simulated muscle action, while six degree-of-freedom joint motion was measured using an optical tracking device. Repeatability of joint kinematics was assessed at four HTA angles (0°, 45°, 90°, 135°) and with two muscle force combinations (A1-biceps brachialis, brachioradialis and A2-biceps, brachioradialis). Repeatability was determined by comparing kinematics at every 10° of flexion over five flexion-extension cycles (0° to 100°). Results: Multiple muscle force combinations can be used at each HTA angle to generate elbow flexion. Trials showed that the testing apparatus produced highly repeatable joint motion at each HTA angle and with varying muscle force combinations. The intraclass correlation coefficient was greater than 0.95 for all conditions. Conclusions: Repeatable smooth cadaveric elbow motion was created that mimicked the in vivo situation. Clinical relevance: These results suggest that the dynamic elbow testing apparatus can be used to characterize elbow biomechanics in cadaver upper extremities.

The Effect of Elbow Flexion On Valgus Carrying Angle.

PURPOSE: This study aimed to examine the effect of flexion on valgus carrying angle in the human elbow using a dynamic elbow testing apparatus. METHODS: Active elbow motion was simulated in seven cadaveric upper extremities. Six electromechanical actuators simulated muscle action, while 6 degrees-of-freedom joint motion was measured with an optical tracking system to quantify the kinematics of the ulna with respect to the humerus as the elbow was flexed at the side position. Repeatability of the testing apparatus was assessed in a single elbow over five flexion-extension cycles. The varus angle change of each elbow was compared at different flexion angles with the arm at 0° of humerothoracic abduction or dependent arm position. RESULTS: The testing apparatus achieved excellent kinematic repeatability (intraclass correlation coefficient, >0.95) throughout flexion and extension. All elbows decreased their valgus carrying angle during flexion from 0° to 90° when the arm was maintained at 0° of humerothoracic abduction. Elbows underwent significant total varus angle change from full extension of 3.9° ± 3.4° (P = .007), 7.3° ± 5.2° (P = .01), and 8.9° ± 7.1° (P = .02) at 60°, 90°, and 120° of flexion, respectively. No significant varus angle change was observed between 0° and 30° of flexion (P = .66), 60° and 120° of flexion (P = .06), and 90° and 120° of flexion (P = .19). CONCLUSIONS: The dynamic elbow testing apparatus characterized a decrease of valgus carrying angle during elbow flexion and found that most varus angle changes occurred between 30° and 90° of flexion. All specimens underwent varus angle change until at least 90° of flexion. CLINICAL RELEVANCE: Our model establishes the anatomic decrease in valgus angle by flexion angle in vitro and can serve as a baseline for testing motion profiles of arthroplasty designs and ligamentous reconstruction in the dependent arm position. Future investigations should focus on characterizing motion profile change as the arm is abducted away from the body.

Do Intramedullary Screws Provide Adequate Fixation for Humeral and Ulnar Components in Total Elbow Arthroplasty? A Cadaveric Analysis.

PURPOSE: The objective of this study was to determine the structural properties of the cadaver bone-screw interface for cementless intramedullary screw fixation in the context of total elbow arthroplasty. METHODS: The intramedullary canals of seven humerus and seven ulna specimens from fresh-frozen cadavers were drilled using custom drill bits until the inner cortex was reached and then hand tapped for the corresponding thread size. Titanium screws were advanced into the tapped holes until securely seated. The bones were potted and then mounted on a uniaxial material testing machine. A tensile load was applied, and end-of-test elongation, failure load, energy absorbed, and stiffness were determined. End-of-test load and elongation were defined as the elongation and load experienced by the structure at 3,000 N or failure. Each specimen was inspected for evidence of pullout, loosening, or visible fractures. RESULTS: The end-of-test load and elongation for the humerus specimens were 2721 ± 738 N and 3.0 ± 0.9 mm, respectively. The ulna specimens reached 92% of the humerus specimens' end-of-test load at 2,514 ± 678 N and 120% of their end-of-test elongation (3.6 ± 0.6 mm). The stiffness of the humerus specimens was 1,077 ± 336 N/mm, which was 1.3 times greater than the stiffness of the ulna specimens (790 ± 211 N/mm). Lastly, the energy absorbed by the humerus samples was 3.6 ± 1.6 J, which was 92% of the energy absorbed by the ulna samples at 3.9 ± 1.1 J. One humerus and three ulnas failed before the end-of-test load of 3,000 N. Two failures were caused by screw pullout and two by bone fracture. CONCLUSIONS: Our findings demonstrate that intramedullary screw fixation is successful in withstanding forces that are greater than required for osseointegration. CLINICAL RELEVANCE: Uncemented fixation may be beneficial in elbow arthroplasty.

Greater tuberosity morphology is altered in individuals with symptomatic isolated supraspinatus tendon tears.

BACKGROUND: In the presence of an isolated supraspinatus tear, the force applied to the greater tuberosity is reduced, which may lead to bony morphologic changes. Thus, diagnostic or surgical identification of landmarks to properly repair the torn tendon might be difficult if the anatomy of the greater tuberosity is altered. The objectives of the study were to assess the presence of the superior, middle, and inferior facets of the greater tuberosity in individuals with symptomatic isolated supraspinatus tendon tears and the associations between tear size, tear location and presence of each facet. METHODS: Thirty-seven individuals with symptomatic isolated supraspinatus tendon tears were recruited to participate in the study. Individuals underwent a high-resolution computed tomography scan of the involved shoulder and images were segmented to generate subject specific models of each humerus. The vertices comprising each facet were identified; however, if even a single vertex comprising the facet was missing, the facet was considered altered. Percentage agreement for correctly identifying the presence of each facet was determined using 2 additional observers and 5 randomly selected humeri. Ultrasonography was performed to assess anterior-posterior (AP) tear size and tear location. Outcome parameters included presence of the superior, middle, and inferior facets; AP tear size; and tear location. Point-biserial correlations were used to determine the associations between AP tear size, tear location, and presence of the superior, middle, and inferior facets. RESULTS: Supraspinatus tear size and tear location was 13.1 ± 6.1 mm (range, 1.9-28.3 mm) and 2.0 ± 4.4 mm from the posterior edge of the long head of the biceps tendon (range, 0.0-19.0 mm), respectively. Overall, the superior, middle, and inferior facets were not altered in 24.3%, 29.7%, and 45.9% of individuals, respectively. Percentage agreement between observers was 83.4% on average. No associations were found between tear size or tear location and presence of the superior, middle, or inferior facet (P values ranged from .19 to .74). CONCLUSION: Individuals with symptomatic isolated supraspinatus tears experience significant alterations in the bony morphology of the greater tuberosity that were irrespective of supraspinatus tear size and location. This information is useful for radiologists and orthopedic surgeons as the altered anatomy may influence the ability to identify important anatomic landmarks during diagnostic imaging or surgical procedures.

Increased superior translation following multiple simulated anterior dislocations of the shoulder.

PURPOSE: Recurrent shoulder dislocations can result in kinematic changes of the glenohumeral joint. The number of prior shoulder dislocations may contribute to increased severity of capsulolabral lesions. The kinematics of the glenohumeral joint following multiple dislocations remain poorly understood. The purpose of this study was to assess the kinematics of the glenohumeral joint during anterior dislocations of the shoulder, and more specifically, altered translational motion following multiple dislocations. The kinematics of the glenohumeral joint were hypothesized to change and correlate with the number of dislocations. METHODS: Eight fresh-frozen cadaveric shoulders were dissected free of all soft tissues except the glenohumeral capsule. Each joint was mounted in a robotic testing system. At 60 degrees of glenohumeral abduction, an internal and external rotational torque (1.1 Nm) were applied to the humerus, and the resulting joint kinematics were recorded. Anterior forces were applied to the humerus to anteriorly dislocate the shoulder and the resulting kinematics were recorded during each dislocation. Following each dislocation, the same rotational torque was applied to the humerus, and the resulting joint kinematics were also recorded. A repeated-measures analysis of variance (ANOVA) was used to compare the kinematics following each dislocation. RESULTS: During the 7th, 8th, 9th, and 10th dislocations, the humerus significantly translated superiorly compared with the shoulder during the 1st dislocation (p < 0.05). Following the 3rd, 4th, 5th, and 10th dislocations, the humeral head significantly translated superiorly compared with the shoulder following the 1st dislocation in the position of 60 degrees of abduction in response to external rotation torque (p < 0.05). CONCLUSION: Multiple anterior shoulder dislocations lead to abnormal translational kinematics and result in increased superior translation of the humerus. This may contribute to pathologic superior extension of capsulolabral injuries. Superior translation of the humerus with overhead motion in the setting of recurrent instability may also place the shoulder at risk for extension of the capsulolabral injuries.

Increasing the posterior tibial slope lowers in situ forces in the native ACL primarily at deep flexion angles.

High tibial osteotomy is becoming increasingly popular but can be associated with unintentional posterior tibial slope (PTS) increase and subsequent anterior cruciate ligament (ACL) degeneration. This study quantified the effect of increasing PTS on knee kinematics and in situ forces in the native ACL. A robotic testing system was used to apply external loads from full extension to 90° flexion to seven human cadaveric knees: (1) 200 N axial compressive load, (2) 5 Nm internal tibial + 10 Nm valgus torque, and (3) 5 Nm external tibial + 10 Nm varus torque. Kinematics and in situ forces in the ACL were acquired for the native and increased PTS state. Increasing PTS resulted in increased anterior tibial translation at 30° (1.8 mm), 60° (1.7 mm), and 90° (0.9 mm) flexion and reduced in situ force in the ACL at 30° (57.6%), 60° (69.8%), and 90° (75.0%) flexion in response to 200 N axial compressive load. In response to 5 Nm internal tibial + 10 Nm valgus torque, there was significantly less (39.0%) in situ force in the ACL at 90° flexion in the increased compared with the native PTS state. Significantly less in situ force in the ACL at 60° (62.8%) and 90° (67.0%) flexion was observed in the increased compared with the native PTS state in response to 5 Nm external tibial + 10 Nm varus torque. Increasing PTS affects knee kinematics and results in a reduction of in situ forces in the native ACL during compressive and rotatory loads at flexion angles exceeding 30°. In a controlled laboratory setting PTS increase unloads the ACL, affecting its natural function.

Direction of non-recoverable strain in the glenohumeral capsule following multiple anterior dislocations: Implications for anatomic Bankart repair.

The study aimed to analyze the direction of non-recoverable strain and determine the optimal direction for anatomic capsular plication within four sub-regions of the inferior glenohumeral capsule following multiple dislocations. Seven fresh-frozen cadaveric shoulders were dissected. A grid of strain markers was affixed to the inferior glenohumeral capsule. Each joint was mounted in a 6-degree-of-freedom robotic testing system and repeatedly dislocated in the anterior direction 10 times at 60° of abduction and 60° of external rotation of the glenohumeral joint. The 3D positions of the strain markers were compared before and after dislocations to define the non-recoverable strain. The strain map was divided into four sub-regions. The angles of deviation between each maximum principle strain vector and the anterior band of the inferior glenohumeral ligament (AB-IGHL) or posterior band of the IGHL (PB-IGHL) for the anterior and posterior regions of the capsule were determined. The mean direction of all strain vectors in each sub-region was categorized. The direction of the non-recoverable strain in the anterior-band and anterior-axillary-pouch sub-regions was categorized as parallel to the AB-IGHL, whereas the posterior-axillary-pouch and posterior-band sub-regions were mostly perpendicular to the PB-IGHL. Clinical Significance: Plication of the anteroinferior capsule parallel to the AB-IGHL may be preferred during arthroscopic Bankart repair to restore anatomy; posteroinferior capsular plication may also be necessary and best performed perpendicular to the PB-IGHL. The direction of the capsular injury remains the same irrespective of the number of dislocations. This study provides the scientific and quantitative rationale for an anatomic approach to capsular plication.

The lateral meniscus extrudes with and without root tear evaluated using ultrasound.

PURPOSE: The purpose of the current study was to measure extrusion of the intact lateral meniscus as a function of knee flexion angle and loading condition and to compare the changes in extrusion with a posterior root tear using a robotic testing system and ultrasound. STUDY DESIGN: Controlled laboratory study. METHODS: Eight fresh-frozen cadaveric knees were subjected to external loading conditions (passive path position (no external load), 200 axial compression, 5-N-m internal tibial torque, 5-N-m valgus torque) at full extension, 30°, 60° and 90° of flexion using a robotic testing system. A linear array transducer was placed in the longitudinal orientation. Extrusion and kinematics data were recorded for two meniscus states: intact and posterior lateral root deficiency. Therefore, a complete radial root tear in the lateral meniscus at 10 mm from the tibial insertion was made in all 8 cadaveric knees using arthroscopy. The resultant forces in the lateral meniscus were also quantified by reproducing recorded paths after the removal of the lateral meniscus. RESULTS: A lateral meniscus root tear resulted in a statistically significant increase (up to 250%) of extrusion for the lateral meniscus (p < 0.05) in comparison to the intact lateral meniscus for all externally applied loads. Without external load (passive path position), significant differences were also found between the intact and posterior lateral root deficient meniscus except at full extension (1.0 ± 0.7 mm vs. 1.9 ± 0.4 mm) and 30° of flexion (1.4 ± 0.5 mm vs. 1.8 ± 0.5 mm). Overall, with increasing flexion angle, lateral meniscus extrusion decreased for the intact as well as for the posterior lateral root deficient meniscus, with the lowest measurements in response to internal tibial torque at 90° of flexion (-3.3 ± 1.1 mm). Knee kinematics were similar whether intact or posterior lateral root tear (n.s.). Ultrasound measurement of lateral meniscus extrusion showed good inter-rater (0.65 [0.30-0.97]-0.71 [0.34-0.94]) and excellent intra-rater reliability (0.81 [0.43-0.99]). CONCLUSION: Dynamic Ultrasound is a reliable diagnostic modality to measure the lateral meniscus extrusion which can be helpful in the diagnosis and quantification of lateral meniscal root tears. LEVEL OF EVIDENCE: III.

Ultrasound-Guided Anterior Talofibular Ligament Repair With Augmentation Can Restore Ankle Kinematics: A Cadaveric Biomechanical Study.

Background: Anterior talofibular ligament (ATFL) repair of the ankle is a common surgical procedure. Ultrasound (US)-guided anchor placement for ATFL repair can be performed anatomically and accurately. However, to our knowledge, no study has investigated ankle kinematics after US-guided ATFL repair. Hypothesis: US-guided ATFL repair with and without inferior extensor retinaculum (IER) augmentation will restore ankle kinematics. Study Design: Controlled laboratory study; Level of evidence, 4. Methods: A 6 degrees of freedom robotic testing system was used to apply multidirectional loads to fresh-frozen cadaveric ankles (N = 9). The following ankle states were evaluated: ATFL intact, ATFL deficient, combined ATFL repair and IER augmentation, and isolated US-guided ATFL repair. Three loading conditions (internal-external rotation torque, anterior-posterior load, and inversion-eversion torque) were applied at 4 ankle positions: 30° of plantarflexion, 15° of plantarflexion, 0° of plantarflexion, and 15° of dorsiflexion. The resulting kinematics were recorded and compared using a 1-way repeated-measures analysis of variance with the Benjamini-Hochberg test. Results: Anterior translation in response to an internal rotation torque significantly increased in the ATFL-deficient state compared with the ATFL-intact state at 30° and 15° of plantarflexion (P = .022 and .03, respectively). After the combined US-guided ATFL repair and augmentation, anterior translation was reduced significantly compared with the ATFL-deficient state at 30° and 15° of plantarflexion (P = .0012 and .005, respectively). Anterior translation was not significantly different for the isolated ATFL-repair state compared with the ATFL-deficient or ATFL-intact states at 30° and 15° of plantarflexion. Conclusion: Combined US-guided ATFL repair with augmentation of the IER reduced lateral ankle laxity due to ATFL deficiency. Isolated US-guided ATFL repair did not reduce laxity due to ATFL deficiency, nor did it increase instability compared with the intact ankle. Clinical Relevance: US-guided ATFL repair with IER augmentation is a minimally-invasive technique to reduce lateral ankle laxity due to ATFL deficiency. Isolated US-guided ATFL repair may be a viable option if accompanied by a period of immobilization.

Associations between range of motion, strength, tear size, patient-reported outcomes, and glenohumeral kinematics in individuals with symptomatic isolated supraspinatus tears.

BACKGROUND: Clinical failure associated with nonoperative treatment of rotator cuff tears may be due to inadequate characterization of the individual's functional impairments. Clinically, restricted passive range of motion (ROM) (restrictions imply capsular tightness), limitations in muscle strength, and larger rotator cuff tears are hypothesized to be related to altered glenohumeral kinematics. Understanding these relationships, as well as the relationship between glenohumeral kinematics and patient-reported outcomes (PROs) prior to exercise therapy, may help characterize functional impairments in individuals with rotator cuff tears. The objectives of the study were to describe the baseline presentation of individuals with an isolated supraspinatus tear, including passive ROM, rotator cuff muscle strength, tear size, PROs, and glenohumeral kinematics, and to determine associations among these variables. METHODS: One hundred one individuals with symptomatic isolated supraspinatus tears were recruited for the study and underwent assessments of passive glenohumeral ROM, isometric muscle strength, and ultrasonography to assess anterior-posterior tear size. Glenohumeral kinematics during scapular-plane abduction were measured using biplane radiography. Furthermore, PROs including the American Shoulder and Elbow Surgeons (ASES) score and the Western Ontario Rotator Cuff Index (WORC) score were collected. RESULTS: Individuals presented with decreased ROM, external rotation weakness compared with the uninvolved side, and pain and disability as measured by the ASES and WORC scores. These findings were not associated with glenohumeral kinematics, with the exception of a weak positive association between glenohumeral contact path lengths and WORC scores (ρ = 0.25, P = .03). Tear size was 11.7 ± 5.7 mm, and maximum anterior translation, superior translation, and contact path length were 3.0% ± 3.8% of glenoid width, 3.5% ± 3.8% of glenoid height, and 38.2% ± 20.7% of glenoid size, respectively. CONCLUSION: Individuals with a symptomatic isolated supraspinatus tear presented with decreased ROM, external rotation weakness, and pain and disability as measured by the ASES and WORC scores. However, no abnormal kinematics associated with these limitations were observed. Thus, given that the tear is isolated to the supraspinatus tendon and no capsular restrictions are present, normal function of the glenohumeral joint may be possible during scapular-plane abduction.

Tibiofemoral bony morphology impacts the knee kinematics after anterolateral capsule injury and lateral extraarticular tenodesis differently than intact state.

Anterolateral capsule injury, often concomitant with anterior cruciate ligament (ACL) injuries, may result in high-grade rotatory instability. Lateral extraarticular tenodesis (LET) is sometimes added to ACL reconstruction to address this instability. However, LET is a non-anatomic procedure and concerns regarding increased tibiofemoral contact pressure and reduced internal rotation exist for some individuals which may be due to their tibiofemoral bony morphology. Therefore, the objective of this study was to analyze the effect of bony morphology on knee kinematic and contact pressure before and after anterolateral capsule injury and LET. A (1) 134-N anterior tibial load with 200-N axial compression and (2) a 7-Nm internal torque with a 200-N axial compression were applied to cadaveric knees (n = 8) using a 6 degree-of-freedom robotic testing system. Tibiofemoral bony morphology was captured with computed tomography scans and analyzed using 3D statistical shape modeling. Kinematics at each state were correlated with the results from the statistical shape model. Two femoral and three tibial modes of variation correlated with kinematic and contact pressure data before and after anterolateral capsule injury and LET. A decreased lateral tibial plateau elevation correlated with greater internal rotation and anterior tibial translation after anterolateral capsule deficiency and LET. Decreased notch width correlated with decreased contact area after anterolateral capsule deficiency and LET demonstrating it as a risk factor for ACL injury. The results of this study demonstrate that bony morphology if properly understood, could help improve the efficacy of LET procedures and that bony morphology has different effects after injury and repair.

Tibiofemoral bony morphology features associated with ACL injury and sex utilizing three-dimensional statistical shape modeling.

Statistical shape modeling was employed to assess three-dimensional (3D) bony morphology between distal femurs and proximal tibiae of anterior cruciate ligament (ACL) injured knees, the contralateral uninjured knees of ACL injured subjects, and knees with no history of injury. Surface models were created by segmenting bone from bilateral computed-tomography scans of 20 subjects of their ACL injured knees and non-injured contralateral knees, and 20 knees of control subjects with no history of a knee injury. Correspondence particles were placed on each surface, and a principal component analysis determined modes of variation in the positions of the correspondence particles describing anatomical variation. ANOVAs assessed the statistical differences of 3D bony morphological features with main effects of injury state and sex. ACL injured knees were determined to have a more lateral femoral mechanical axis and a greater angle between the long axis and condylar axis of the femur. A smaller anterior-posterior dimension of the lateral tibial plateau was also associated with ACL injured knees. Results of this study demonstrate that there are more bony morphological features predisposing individuals for ACL injury than previously established. These bony morphological parameters may cause greater internal and valgus torques increasing stresses in the ACL. No differences were determined between the ACL injured knees and their uninjured contralateral knees demonstrating that knees of ACL injured individuals are at similar risk for injury. Further understanding of the effect of bony morphology on the risk for ACL injury could improve individualized ACL injury treatment and prevention.

Continuous-Loop Tape Technique Has Greater Stiffness and Less Elongation Compared With Tied-Suture Fixation of Full-Thickness All-Soft Tissue Quadriceps Tendon Autografts.

BACKGROUND: Many graft fixation techniques are utilized for full-thickness soft tissue quadriceps tendon autografts during anterior cruciate ligament reconstruction (ACLR). PURPOSE: To determine the tensile properties of all-soft tissue quadriceps tendon graft fixation using a tied-suture versus continuous-loop tape technique. It was hypothesized that the continuous-loop tape technique would have less cyclic elongation and greater ultimate load to failure and stiffness compared with a commonly used tied-suture technique. STUDY DESIGN: Controlled laboratory study. METHODS: Sixteen fresh-frozen human knee specimens were used to harvest a full-thickness all-soft tissue quadriceps tendon graft; half were secured using a Krackow suture technique with 2 braided sutures, and half were secured using a continuous-loop tape suspensory fixation button with a rip-stop stitch. Cyclic and permanent elongation, toe- and linear-region stiffness, and ultimate load were determined. Statistical analysis was performed at P <.05. RESULTS: The tied-suture fixation group demonstrated significantly higher permanent elongation (11.7 ± 3.6 vs 4.2 ± 1.0 mm, P < .001) and cyclic elongation (5.9 ± 1.3 vs 2.0 ± 0.4 mm, P < .001) compared with the continuous-loop tape fixation group. There was a significantly higher linear-region stiffness with continuous-loop tape fixation compared with tied-suture fixation (98.8 ± 12.7 vs 85.5 ± 7.5 N/mm, P = .022). No significant difference in ultimate load between groups (517.1 ± 149.2 vs 465.6 ± 64.6 N) was found. The mode of failure was tendon pull-through for the continuous-loop tape group and suture breakage in the tied-suture group (P < .001). CONCLUSION: Continuous-loop tape fixation is superior to tied-suture fixation in regard to elongation and stiffness for all-soft tissue quadriceps tendon grafts, but there was no significant difference in ultimate load. CLINICAL RELEVANCE: Continuous-loop tape fixation of all-soft tissue quadriceps tendon grafts for ACLR is a valid technique with superior tensile properties.

An improved quantitative ultrasonographic technique could assess anterior translation of the glenohumeral joint accurately and reliably.

PURPOSE: Since poor repeatability of the load and shift test using a grading scale has been reported, an objective and quantitative method to assess anterior translation should be established to assess glenohumeral joint function. The purpose of this study was to assess the accuracy and repeatability of the ultrasonographic techniques to quantify anterior translation of the glenohumeral joint. METHODS: Eight fresh-frozen cadaveric shoulders were used. For the standard technique, the ultrasound transducer was positioned on the anterolateral aspect of the shoulder viewing the coracoid process, glenoid, and humeral head. For the revised technique, the transducer was positioned on the anterior aspect of the shoulder, perpendicular to the scapular plane, viewing the conjoint tendon, glenoid, and humeral head. During the load and shift test, the distance between anterior edges of the glenoid and the humeral head was measured. The difference between distances before and after applying an anterior load was calculated as an anterior translation and compared with the anterior translation assessed using a motion tracking system. The repeatability and accuracy of both techniques were analyzed statistically. RESULTS: Intra- and inter-observer repeatability was good-excellent for both ultrasonographic techniques (ICC, 0.889-0.998). The revised technique achieved a stronger correlation to the anterior translations obtained using the motion tracking system (R = 0.810-0.913, p < 0.001) than the standard technique (R = 0.619-0.806, p < 0.001). CONCLUSION: Better accuracy and repeatability was found in the revised technique than the standard technique. The revised technique will be useful to determine the individual laxity and modify the treatment plan and return-to-sports protocol. LEVEL OF EVIDENCE: III.