TGF-ß2 silencing to target biliary-derived liver diseases.

OBJECTIVE: TGF-ß2 (TGF-ß, transforming growth factor beta), the less-investigated sibling of TGF-ß1, is deregulated in rodent and human liver diseases. Former data from bile duct ligated and MDR2 knockout (KO) mouse models for human cholestatic liver disease suggested an involvement of TGF-ß2 in biliary-derived liver diseases. DESIGN: As we also found upregulated TGFB2 in liver tissue of patients with primary sclerosing cholangitis (PSC) and primary biliary cholangitis (PBC), we now fathomed the positive prospects of targeting TGF-ß2 in early stage biliary liver disease using the MDR2-KO mice. Specifically, the influence of TgfB2 silencing on the fibrotic and inflammatory niche was analysed on molecular, cellular and tissue levels. RESULTS: TgfB2-induced expression of fibrotic genes in cholangiocytes and hepatic stellate cellswas detected. TgfB2 expression in MDR2-KO mice was blunted using TgfB2-directed antisense oligonucleotides (AON). Upon AON treatment, reduced collagen deposition, hydroxyproline content and αSMA expression as well as induced PparG expression reflected a significant reduction of fibrogenesis without adverse effects on healthy livers. Expression analyses of fibrotic and inflammatory genes revealed AON-specific regulatory effects on Ccl3, Ccl4, Ccl5, Mki67 and Notch3 expression. Further, AON treatment of MDR2-KO mice increased tissue infiltration by F4/80-positive cells including eosinophils, whereas the number of CD45-positive inflammatory cells decreased. In line, TGFB2 and CD45 expression correlated positively in PSC/PBC patients and localised in similar areas of the diseased liver tissue. CONCLUSIONS: Taken together, our data suggest a new mechanistic explanation for amelioration of fibrogenesis by TGF-ß2 silencing and provide a direct rationale for TGF-ß2-directed drug development.

TGF-ß1 and TGF-ß2 abundance in liver diseases of mice and men.

TGF-ß1 is a major player in chronic liver diseases promoting fibrogenesis and tumorigenesis through various mechanisms. The expression and function of TGF-ß2 have not been investigated thoroughly in liver disease to date. In this paper, we provide evidence that TGF-ß2 expression correlates with fibrogenesis and liver cancer development.Using quantitative realtime PCR and ELISA, we show that TGF-ß2 mRNA expression and secretion increased in murine HSCs and hepatocytes over time in culture and were found in the human-derived HSC cell line LX-2. TGF-ß2 stimulation of the LX-2 cells led to upregulation of the TGF-ß receptors 1, 2, and 3, whereas TGF-ß1 treatment did not alter or decrease their expression. In liver regeneration and fibrosis upon CCl4 challenge, the transient increase of TGF-ß2 expression was accompanied by TGF-ß1 and collagen expression. In bile duct ligation-induced fibrosis, TGF-ß2 upregulation correlated with fibrotic markers and was more prominent than TGF-ß1 expression. Accordingly, MDR2-KO mice showed significant TGF-ß2 upregulation within 3 to 15 months but minor TGF-ß1 expression changes. In 5 of 8 hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC)/hepatoblastoma cell lines, relatively high TGF-ß2 expression and secretion were observed, with some cell lines even secreting more TGF-ß2 than TGF-ß1. TGF-ß2 was also upregulated in tumors of TGFα/cMyc and DEN-treated mice. The analysis of publically available microarray data of 13 human HCC collectives revealed considerable upregulation of TGF-ß2 as compared to normal liver.Our study demonstrates upregulation of TGF-ß2 in liver disease and suggests TGF-ß2 as a promising therapeutic target for tackling fibrosis and HCC.

Mechanisms regulating cell membrane localization of the chemokine receptor CXCR4 in human hepatocarcinoma cells.

Hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC) cells with a mesenchymal phenotype show an asymmetric subcellular distribution of the chemokine receptor CXCR4, which is required for cell migration and invasion. In this work we examine the mechanisms that regulate the intracellular trafficking of CXCR4 in HCC cells. Results indicate that HCC cells present CXCR4 at the cell surface, but most of this protein is in endomembranes colocalizing with markers of the Golgi apparatus and recycling endosomes. The presence of high protein levels of CXCR4 present at the cell surface correlates with a mesenchymal-like phenotype and a high autocrine activation of the Transforming Growth Factor-beta (TGF-ß) pathway. CXCR4 traffics along the Golgi/exocyst/plasma membrane pathway and requires EXOC4 (Sec8) component of the exocyst complex. HCC cells use distinct mechanisms for the CXCR4 internalization such as dynamin-dependent endocytosis and macropinocytosis. Regardless of the endocytic mechanisms, colocalization of CXCR4 and Rab11 is observed, which could be involved not only in receptor recycling but also in its post-Golgi transport. In summary, this work highlights membrane trafficking pathways whose pharmacological targeting could subsequently result in the inactivation of one of the main guiding mechanisms used by metastatic cells to colonize secondary organs and tissues.