Role of albumin in the metabolism and excretion of ochratoxin A.

Ochratoxin A (OTA) is known to be strongly bound to serum albumin, but it remains unknown how albumin affects its metabolism and kinetics. To close this gap, we used a mouse model, where heterozygous albumin deletion reduces serum albumin to concentrations similar to hypoalbuminemic patients and completely eliminates albumin by a homozygous knockout. OTA and its potential metabolites (OTα, 4-OH-OTA, 7'-OH-OTA, OTHQ, OP-OTA, OTB-GSH, OTB-NAC, OTB) were time-dependently analyzed in plasma, bile, and urine by LC-MS/MS and were compared to previously published hepatotoxicity and nephrotoxicity data. Homozygous albumin deletion strongly accelerated plasma clearance as well as biliary and urinary excretion of the parent compound and its hydroxylation products. Decreasing albumin in mice by the heterozygous and even more by the homozygous knockout leads to an increase in the parent compound in urine which corresponded to increased nephrotoxicity. The role of albumin in OTA-induced hepatotoxicity is more complex, since heterozygous but not homozygous nor wild-type mice showed a strong biliary increase in the toxic open lactone OP-OTA. Correspondingly, OTA-induced hepatotoxicity was higher in heterozygous than in wild-type and homozygous animals. We present evidence that albumin-mediated retention of OTA in hepatocytes is required for formation of the toxic OP-OTA, while complete albumin elimination leads to rapid biliary clearance of OTA from hepatocytes with less formation of OP-OTA. In conclusion, albumin has a strong influence on metabolism and toxicity of OTA. In hypoalbuminemia, the parent OTA is associated with increased nephrotoxicity and the open lactone with increased hepatotoxicity.

Integrated data from intravital imaging and HPLC-MS/MS analysis reveal large interspecies differences in AFB1 metabolism in mice and rats.

Large interspecies differences between rats and mice concerning the hepatotoxicity and carcinogenicity of aflatoxin B1 (AFB1) are known, with mice being more resistant. However, a comprehensive interspecies comparison including subcellular liver tissue compartments has not yet been performed. In this study, we performed spatio-temporal intravital analysis of AFB1 kinetics in the livers of anesthetized mice and rats. This was supported by time-dependent analysis of the parent compound as well as metabolites and adducts in blood, urine, and bile of both species by HPLC-MS/MS. The integrated data from intravital imaging and HPLC-MS/MS analysis revealed major interspecies differences between rats and mice: (1) AFB1-associated fluorescence persisted much longer in the nuclei of rat than mouse hepatocytes; (2) in the sinusoidal blood, AFB1-associated fluorescence was rapidly cleared in mice, while a time-dependent increase was observed in rats in the first three hours after injection followed by a plateau that lasted until the end of the observation period of six hours; (3) this coincided with a far stronger increase of AFB1-lysine adducts in the blood of rats compared to mice; (4) the AFB1-guanine adduct was detected at much higher concentrations in bile and urine of rats than mice. In both species, the AFB1-glutathione conjugate was efficiently excreted via bile, where it reached concentrations at least three orders of magnitude higher compared to blood. In conclusion, major differences between mice and rats were observed, concerning the nuclear persistence, formation of AFB1-lysine adducts, and the AFB1-guanine adducts.

Aflatoxin M1 Analysis in Urine of Mill Workers in Bangladesh: A Pilot Study.

Presence of aflatoxin B1 (AFB1) in food and feed is a serious problem, especially in developing countries. Human exposure to this carcinogenic mycotoxin can occur through dietary intake, but also through inhalation or dermal contact when handling and processing AFB1-contaminated crops. A suitable biomarker of AFB1 exposure by all routes is the occurrence of its hydroxylated metabolite aflatoxin M1 (AFM1) in urine. To assess mycotoxin exposure in mill workers in Bangladesh, we analyzed AFM1 levels in urine samples of this population group who may encounter both dietary and occupational AFB1 exposure. In this pilot study, a total of 76 participants (51 mill workers and 25 controls) were enrolled from the Sylhet region of Bangladesh. Urine samples were collected from people who worked in rice, wheat, maize and spice mills and from controls with no occupational contact to these materials. A questionnaire was used to collect information on basic characteristics and normal food habits of all participants. Levels of AFM1 in the urine samples were determined by a competitive enzyme linked immunosorbent assay. AFM1 was detected in 96.1% of mill workers' urine samples with a range of LOD (40) of 217.7 pg/mL and also in 92% of control subject's urine samples with a range of LOD of 307.0 pg/mL). The mean level of AFM1 in mill workers' urine (106.5 ± 35.0 pg/mL) was slightly lower than that of the control group (123.3 ± 52.4 pg/mL), whilst the mean AFM1 urinary level adjusted for creatinine was higher in mill workers (142.1 ± 126.1 pg/mg crea) than in the control group (98.5 ± 71.2 pg/mg crea). Yet, these differences in biomarker levels were not statistically significant. Slightly different mean urinary AFM1 levels were observed between maize mill, spice mill, rice mill, and wheat mill workers, yet biomarker values are based on a small number of individuals in these subgroups. No significant correlations were found between the study subjects' urine AFM1 levels and their consumption of some staple food items, except for a significant correlation observed between urinary biomarker levels and consumption of groundnuts. In conclusion, this pilot study revealed the frequent presence of AFM1 in the urine of mill workers in Bangladesh and those of concurrent controls with dietary AFB1 exposure only. The absence of a statistical difference in mean biomarker levels for workers and controls suggests that in the specific setting, no extra occupational exposure occurred. Yet, the high prevalence of non-negligible AFM1 levels in the collected urines encourage further studies in Bangladesh regarding aflatoxin exposure.

Umbrales para las clases específicas de carcinógenos genotóxicos. nueva estrategia para la categorización de la carcinogenicidad de las sustancias químicas / Thresholds for specific classes of genotoxic carcinogens: a new strategy for carcinogenicity categorisation of chemicals

Cada vez está más claro el principio general de la secuencia de acontecimientos que finalmente conducen al cáncer después de la exposición a carcinógenos genotóxicos. Esto ayuda a conocer los parámetros que influyen en la forma de la curva dosis-efecto para la carcinogénesis, que incluyen activación e inactivación metabólica de carcinógenos, reparación del ADN, control del ciclo celular, proliferación regenerativa, apoptosis, senescencia inducida por oncogenes y control por el sistema inmunitario. Una relación lineal dosis-respuesta sin umbral observable parece ser una descripción conservadora pero adecuada para la actividad carcinógena de muchos carcinógenos genotóxicos, por ejemplo, la aflatoxina B1. Sin embargo, algunos modelos de extrapolación lineal que conectan el riesgo de alto nivel a la intersección en el cero han conducido a predicciones erróneas. En esta revisión se demuestra que el acetato de vinilo es un ejemplo de carcinógeno que actúa a través de un mecanismo de umbral. En los tejidos de contacto, el acetato de vinilo es convertido en ácido acético y acetaldehído. Sólo cuando se alcanzan las concentraciones umbral se activa el mecanismo que finalmente conduce al cáncer, es decir una reducción del pH mayor de 0.15 unidad que conduce a citotoxicidad, daño del ADN y proliferación regenerativa. En esta revisión se presenta un nuevo sistema de categorización de los carcinógenos que tiene en cuenta que pueden actuar por mecanismos de umbral.

The general principle of the sequence of events that finallylead to cancer after exposure to genotoxic carcinogenshas become increasingly clear. This helps to understandthe parameters that influence the shape of the dose effectcurve for carcinogenesis, including metabolic activationand inactivation of carcinogens, DNA repair, cell cyclecontrol, regenerative proliferation, apoptosis, oncogeneinducedsenescence and control by the immune system.A linear dose response relationship with no observablethreshold seems to be a conservative but adequatedescription for the carcinogenic activity of many genotoxiccarcinogens, such as for instance aflatoxin B1. However,some linear extrapolation models connecting the highlevelrisk to the zero intercept have resulted in wrongpredictions. In this review we demonstrate that vinylacetate is an example of a carcinogen acting by athreshold mechanism. In tissues of contact vinyl acetateis converted to acetic acid and acetaldehyde. Only whenthreshold levels are achieved critical steps in themechanism that ultimately leads to cancer become active,namely pH reduction of more than 0.15 units leadingto cytotoxicity, damage to DNA and regenerativeproliferation. In this review we present a new system ofcarcinogen categorisation taking into account thatcarcinogens may act by threshold mechanisms.