High positive predictive value of Gram stain on catheter-drawn blood samples for the diagnosis of catheter-related bloodstream infection in intensive care neonates.

Catheter-related bloodstream infections (CRBSIs) remain a leading cause of healthcare-associated infections in preterm infants. Rapid and accurate methods for the diagnosis of CRBSIs are needed in order to implement timely and appropriate treatment. A retrospective study was conducted during a 7-year period (2005-2012) in the neonatal intensive care unit of the University Hospital Erasme to assess the value of Gram stain on catheter-drawn blood samples (CDBS) to predict CRBSIs. Both peripheral samples and CDBS were obtained from neonates with clinically suspected CRBSI. Gram stain, automated culture and quantitative cultures on blood agar plates were performed for each sample. The paired quantitative blood culture was used as the standard to define CRBSI. Out of 397 episodes of suspected CRBSIs, 35 were confirmed by a positive ratio of quantitative culture (>5) or a colony count of CDBS culture >100 colony-forming units (CFU)/mL. All but two of the 30 patients who had a CDBS with a positive Gram stain were confirmed as having a CRBSI. Seven patients who had a CDBS with a negative Gram stain were diagnosed as CRBSI. The sensitivity, specificity, positive predictive value and negative predictive value of Gram stain on CDBS were 80, 99.4, 93.3 and 98.1 %, respectively. Gram staining on CDBS is a viable method for rapidly (<1 h) detecting CRBSI without catheter withdrawal.

Comparative pharmacoscintigraphic and pharmacokinetic evaluation of two new formulations of inhaled insulin in type 1 diabetic patients.

In this open, single-dose study, we compared the lung deposition and bioavailability of two newly developed insulin formulations for pulmonary delivery. Twelve type 1 diabetic patients were administered the two insulin products (2 U/kg b.w.), which had been radiolabelled with (99m)Tc. The formulations were either microparticles of insulin without excipients (F1) or lipid-coated insulin microparticles (F2). Lung deposition was assessed by γ-scintigraphy imaging performed immediately after administration. Bioavailability was evaluated by quantifying serum insulin levels over a period of 6 h. Lung deposition was found to be 50 ± 9% and 24 ± 8% for the F1 and F2 formulations, respectively. The insulin AUC0₋360 ratio of F1/F2 was 188%, which was consistent with scintigraphic imaging. The concordance between imaging and biological results suggests that the lower bioavailability of F2 is due to its lower lung deposition and not to a reduced absorption into the blood stream. Additional in vitro experiments indicated that the lower performance of F2 was most probably related to a lower disaggregation efficiency of the powder when administered at a sub-optimal flow rate. The two formulations showed interesting pharmacokinetic profiles (T(max) of 26 and 16 min for F1 and F2, respectively) that mimic the physiological insulin secretion pattern. The bioavailability of the developed formulations was within the range of other DPI insulin formulations that have reached the final stages of clinical development.

Preparation and in vitro/in vivo evaluation of nano-sized crystals for dissolution rate enhancement of ucb-35440-3, a highly dosed poorly water-soluble weak base.

Ucb-35440-3 is a new drug entity under investigation at UCB S.A. Due to its physicochemical characteristics, the drug, a poorly water-soluble weak base, shows poor solubility and dissolution characteristics. In rat, the low oral bioavailability (F < 10%) is largely due to poor absorption. In order to enhance the solubility and dissolution characteristics, formulation of ucb-35440-3 as nanocrystals has been achieved in this study. Nanoparticles were prepared using high pressure homogenization and were characterized in terms of size and morphology. In vitro dissolution characteristics were investigated and compared to the un-milled drug in order to verify the theoretical hypothesis on the benefit of increased surface area. In vivo pharmacokinetic evaluation of ucb-35440-3 nanoparticles was also carried out on rats. Crystalline state evaluation before and following particle size reduction was conducted through polarized light microscopy and PXRD to denote any possible transformation to an amorphous state during the homogenization process. Drug chemical stability was also assessed following homogenization. The dissolution rate increased significantly at pH 3.0, 5.0 and 6.5 for ucb-35440-3 nanoparticles. However, the pharmacokinetic profile obtained yielded lower systemic exposure than the un-milled compound (in fed state), this although being thought to be the consequence of the drug and formulation characteristics.

Preparation and characterization of nanocrystals for solubility and dissolution rate enhancement of nifedipine.

Poorly water-soluble drugs such as nifedipine (NIF) (approximately 20 microg/ml) offer challenging problems in drug formulation as poor solubility is generally associated to poor dissolution characteristics and thus to poor oral bioavailability. In order to enhance these characteristics, preparation of nifedipine nanoparticles has been achieved using high pressure homogenization. The homogenization procedure has first been optimized in regard to particle size and size distribution. Nanoparticles were characterized in terms of size, morphology and redispersion characteristics following water-removal. Saturation solubility and dissolution characteristics were investigated and compared to the un-milled commercial NIF to verify the theoretical hypothesis on the benefit of increased surface area. Crystalline state evaluation before and following particle size reduction was also conducted through differential scanning calorimetry (DSC) and powder X-ray diffraction (PXRD) to denote eventual transformation to amorphous state during the homogenization process. Through this study, it has been shown that initial crystalline state is maintained following particle size reduction and that the dissolution characteristics of nifedipine nanoparticles were significantly increased in regards to the commercial product. The method being simple and easily scaled up, this approach should have a general applicability to many poorly water-soluble drug entities.

Piracetam-induced changes to membrane physical properties. A combined approach by 31P nuclear magnetic resonance and conformational analysis.

Piracetam, Nootropil (2-oxo-1-pyrrolidine acetamide), is a drug promoting erythrocyte deformability. To establish the mode of action of this compound, we have investigated its influence on the organization of model phospholipid membranes. 31P NMR data show that the drug induces a structural modification in liposomes made of phosphatidylcholine and phosphatidylethanolamine. Our conformational analysis results have allowed the interpretation of the effect of piracetam on these model membranes: the specific interaction between the drug molecules and the phosphate headgroups induces a new organization of the lipids favouring formation of mobile drug-phospholipid complexes that exhibit an isotropic-type signal in the 31P NMR spectra.

31P NMR study of the parameters influencing the formation of non-bilayer phases in model membrane.

The influence of various parameters on the formation of non-bilayer phases in mixed cardiolipin/phosphatidylcholine liposomes have been examined by 31P NMR. The Ca++ concentration, the Ca++/cardiolipin ratio and also the phospholipid concentration determine the proportions of the different phases detected on the spectra. In particular, an increase of the cardiolipin concentration favours the induction of isotropic and hexagonal phases. By considering this phospholipid concentration dependence, it is possible to reconcile previous apparently contradictory data on the Ca++ threshold for inducing fusion of this model membrane.

Physico-chemical properties of prostaglandins and related pharmacological compounds. A theoretical study on conformational related activity.

Thromboxane A2, prostaglandin H2, a series of chemically stable cyclic endoperoxide analogues (U 46619, U 44069, ONO 11113, 9, 11, diazo PGH2 and SQ 26655) and different isomers of SQ 26655 were analysed for their spatial configuration by conformational analysis in a simulated membrane-water interface environment with a "structure tree" procedure already described for prostaglandins, leukotrienes and lipoxins. The conformers derived from the structure tree and with a high probability of existence are presented. A new method allows one to visualize the surface charge density of the calculated molecules. The spatial configuration and the surface charge density of each molecule are compared to their known order of competition binding to the putative TXA2/PGH2 receptor of platelets. The conformational and charge density analysis merely shows that the different stereochemistry of these molecules lead to spatial conformation, that mimics (agonists), or that are far from (antagonists) the TXA2/PGH2 conformation.

Ultrastructural, physico-chemical and conformational study of the interactions of gentamicin and bis(beta-diethylaminoethylether) hexestrol with negatively-charged phospholipid layers.

Aminoglycoside antibiotics such as gentamicin, which are fully hydrophilic, and cationic amphiphilic drugs such as bis(beta-diethylaminoethylether)hexestrol (DEH), are both known to inhibit lysosomal phospholipases and induce phospholipidosis. This enzymatic inhibition is probably related to the neutralization of the surface negative charges on which the lysosomal phospholipases A1 and A2 are dependent to express fully their activities (Mingeot-Leclerq et al., Biochem Pharmacol 37: 591-599, 1988). Using negatively charged liposomes, we show by 31P NMR spectroscopy that both gentamicin and DEH cause a significant restriction in the phosphate head mobility and, in sonicated vesicles, the appearance of larger bilayer structures. Both DEH and gentamicin increased the apparent size of sonicated negatively charged liposomes (but not of neutral liposomes) as measured by quasi-elastic light scattering spectroscopy. Examination of replicas from freeze-etched samples, however, revealed that gentamicin caused aggregation of liposomes, whereas DEH induced their fusion and the formation of intramembranous roundly shaped structures. Only DEH caused a significant decrease of the fluorescence polarization of 1,6-diphenyl-1,3,5-hexatriene, a fluorescent lipid-soluble probe. In addition, DEH, but not gentamicin, interfered with the bilayer to hexagonal phase transition occurring in dioleoyl- and dielaidoylphosphatidylethanolamine liposomes upon warming, and caused the appearance of an isotropic signal suggestive of the formation of inverted micelles. In computer-aided conformational analysis of the molecules at a simulated air-water interface, gentamicin was shown to display a largely-open crescent shape. When surrounded by phosphatidylinositol molecules, it remained as such at the interface which it locally mis-shaped, establishing close contact with the negatively charged phospho groups. In contrast, DEH could be oriented perpendicularly to the interface, with its two cationic groups associated with the phospho groups, and its phenyl- and diethylethandiyl moieties deeply inserted between and interacting with the aliphatic chains. Thus, although both agents cause lysosomal phospholipases inhibition, the differences in their interactions with negatively-charged bilayers is likely to result in a different organization of the phospholipids accumulated in vivo, which could lead to different toxicities.

Conformational analysis of lipoxin A, lipoxin B and their trans-isomers.

Lipoxin A and lipoxin B (LXA and LXB) are formed from the oxygenation of arachidonic acid by interactions between the 5- and 15-lipoxygenases of human leukocytes. Each compound displays highly stereospecific biological actions. Here, we present a computational description of the following compounds: lipoxin A, (5S,6R,15S)-trihydroxy-7,9,13-trans-11-cis-eicosatetraenoic acid; 11-trans-lipoxin A, (5S,6R,15S)-trihydroxy-7,9,11,13-trans-eicosatetraenoic acid; lipoxin B, (5S,14R,15S)-trihydroxy-6,10,12-trans-8-cis-eicosatetraenoic acid; and 8-trans-lipoxin B, (5S,14R,15S)-trihydroxy-6,8,10,12-trans-eicosatetraenoic acid. The analyses considered van der Waals energy, electrostatic interactions, torsional potential, and alterations in electrostatic forces. Additional analyses were carried out with each of the four compounds forming complexes with one calcium ion. Each compound gave very different conformers. Both lipoxin A and lipoxin B can form globular conformations, while their all-trans isomers form rigid extended structures. When complexes with each of these compounds and one calcium ion were examined (i.e., (LXA)2Ca: (11-trans-LXA)2Ca), both LXA and LXB formed several flexible conformations including crumpled, wrapped or extended conformations. In this situation, LXA showed a higher probability than LXB to wrap around one Ca2+. In contrast, the two all-trans isomers always lead to extended conformations. Results from the present study illustrate that changes in the stereochemistry of LXA and LXB lead to unique conformations which may underlie the different biological actions of these compounds. Moreover, they indicate that the conformations of eicosanoids can change while in aqueous or hydrophobic environments (i.e., biomembranes).

Computed conformational analysis of lipoxins and their ionic complexes.

The possible molecular conformations of four structurally and biologically different lipoxins derivatives were predicted by a systematic structure tree theoretical analysis. This method takes into account the London-Van der Waals energy of interaction, the electrostatic interaction, the rotation energy of the torsional angles and the energy of transfer through a possible lipid-water interface. Finally, the conformers derived from the structure tree and with a high probability of existence were submitted to the energy minimization procedure. The most probable conformers of lipoxin A: 5S,6R,15S-trihydroxy-7,9,13 trans-11 cis-eicosatetraenoic acid (LXA); 11 trans lipoxin A: 5S,6R,15S-trihydroxy-7,9,11,13 trans-eicosatetraenoic acid (11t-LXA); lipoxin B: 5S,14R 15S-trihydroxy-6,10,12 trans-8 cis-eicosatetraenoic acid (LXB) and 8 trans lipoxin B: 5S,14R,15S-trihydroxy- 6,8,10,12 trans-eicosatetraenoic acid (8t-LXB) in their isolated form or when forming complexes with one calcium ion are presented. The four isolated compounds lead to vastly different conformations. Lipoxin A can form the most globular conformer while lipoxin B seems to be slightly more extended. The all trans isomer of lipoxin B forms an extended conformer and 11 trans lipoxin A gives a fully extended molecule. Complexes of a pair of these compounds with one calcium ion were shown to lead to vastly different conformations. Both (LXA) 2Ca and (LXB)2Ca form crumpled or extended structure, the LXA molecules being more wrapped around Ca2+ than LXB molecules. The (11t-LXA)2Ca and (8t-LXB)2Ca complexes present a high probability of extended conformations. Our description merely shows that the peculiar stereochemistry of these molecules lead to equilibria between conformers or to very static conformers, the flexibility and rigidity of which being probably relevant in view of their different biological activities.

Aluminum-induced lipid phase separation and membrane fusion does not require the presence of negatively charged phospholipids.

The interaction of Aluminum with phosphatidyl serine lipid vesicles containing variable amounts of phosphatidyl ethanolamine, phosphatidyl choline and cholesterol has been studied by lipid phase separation monitored by fluorescence quenching. The interaction of Al3+ with neutral phospholipid membranes has also been investigated. Maximal lipid phase separation can be demonstrated in mixed phosphatidyl ethanolamine-cholesterol vesicles when using concentrations of aluminum between 87.5 and 125 microM. Millimolar concentrations of Ca2+, Mn2+, Cd2+ and Zn2+ were without any effect. Aluminum also induced fusion of phospholipid membranes monitored by resonance energy transfer between N-(7-nitro-2,1,3, benzoxadiazol-4 yl) phosphatidyl ethanolamine and N-(lissamine Rhodamine B-sulfonyl) phosphatidyl ethanolamine, either when containing low amounts of phosphatidyl serine (12.5%) or without any negatively charged phospholipid. Aluminum-induced fusion of liposomes was also monitored by the fluorescence of the terbium-dipicolinic acid complex (Tb-DPA3-) formed during fusion of vesicles containing either Tb-(citrate)6- complex or sodium salt of dipicolinic acid.

Na+-H+ exchange in the process of glucose-induced insulin release from the pancreatic B-cell. Effects of amiloride on 86Rb, 45Ca fluxes and insulin release.

The effect of amiloride, an inhibitor of Na+-H+ exchange, on intracellular pH (pHi), 86Rb outflow, 45Ca outflow and insulin release from pancreatic rat islets was examined. In the 0.1-1 mM range, amiloride transiently reduced pHi of glucose-deprived islets and allowed glucose to induce a sustained decrease in pHi of the islet cells. Amiloride reproduced the effect of glucose to decrease 86Rb and 45Ca outflow. In the presence of glucose (5.6 mM or more), amiloride (100 microM) acted synergistically with the sugar to reduce K+ outflow, and to stimulate 40Ca inflow and insulin release from perifused islets. These results add strong support to the view that the generation of protons through the metabolism of glucose represents an important step in the process of glucose-induced release. The stimulation by glucose of Na+-H+ exchange apparently masks and even overcomes the glucose-induced decrease in pHi otherwise expected from the increase in catabolic fluxes.

Synergistic effects of micromolar concentrations of Zn2+ and Ca2+ on membrane fusion.

Resonance Energy Transfer between N-(7-nitro-2,1,3 benzoxadiazol -4 yl) phosphatidyl ethanolamine and N-Lissamine-Rhodamine B sulfonyl) phosphatidyl ethanolamine embedded in two different populations of small unilamellar vesicles made of phosphatidyl serine has been used to study the fusion process induced by Zn2+ and Ca2+. Lipid intermixing demonstrating fusion of liposome membranes can already be observed at 125 and 250 mumol/l of Zn2+. After short time pre-incubations with micromolar concentrations of Zn2+ as low as 150 mumol/l, Ca2+ induces an instantaneous increase of vesicle fusion. The lipid intermixing induced by micromolar concentrations of Ca2+ (250-500 mumol/l) could be increased up to 4 times when pre-incubated with 150 or 200 mumol/l of Zn2+. The effect of 1 mM of Ca2+ alone on lipid intermixing can be mimicked by 150 mumol/l of Zn2+ followed by 500 mumol/l of Ca2+. Our data demonstrate that Zn2+ and Ca2+ act synergistically to affect cation-induced membrane fusion. We suggest that Zn2+ specifically alters the physical state of phospholipid membranes making them more prone to calcium-triggered fusion.

Micromolar concentrations of Zn2+ potentiates Ca2+-induced phase separation of phosphatidyl serine containing liposomes.

Fluorescence quenching of 1-acyl-2-[6[(7 nitro-2,1,3-benzoxadiazol-4yl) amino]caproyl] phosphatidyl choline in small unilamellar vesicles consisting of phosphatidyl serine has been used to monitor the lipid phase separation induced by Zn2+ and Ca2+. Phase separation of vesicle membranes was observed with Zn2+ at concentrations as low as 125 microM. Low concentrations of Zn2+ required long incubation times to reach maximal quenching (120 minutes at 375 microM). When low concentrations of Ca2+ were added to the preparation during the developing phase of Zn2+-induced quenching, an explosive increase in fluorescence quenching was instantenously observed. Phase separation induced by sub-millimolar concentrations of Ca2+ could be increased at least 4 times when vesicles were pre-incubated with 250 microM of Zn2+.

Protonophoretic activity of hypoglycemic sulfonylureas in black lipid membranes.

The ability of glibenclamide and of gliclazide to act as protonophores has been studied in black lipid membranes made of glycerol monoleate as a function of pH and drug concentration. Protons may effectively be transported across lipid membranes with a maximum at a pH close to the pKa of the sulfamide (pKa of glibenclamide = 5.4). It is suggested therefore that hypoglycemic sulfonylureas may act in part as Ca2+ inward and H+ outward ionophores through plasma membranes of pancreatic B cells.

Neurotoxic cations induce membrane rigidification and membrane fusion at micromolar concentrations.

The effect of the neurotoxic cations aluminum, cadmium and manganese on membranes was examined in sonicated unilamellar vesicles containing phosphatidylserine and compared to the effect of Ca2+. Fusion of membranes was monitored by assessing the resonance energy transfer between N-(7-nitrobenz-2-oxa-1,3-diazol-4-y)phosphatidylethanolamine and N-(lissamine-rhodamine B-sulfonyl)phosphatidylethanolamine. Self-quenching of high concentrations of carboxyfluorescein in liposomes was used to demonstrate the release of molecules entrapped in liposomes to compare the kinetics of leakage and intermixing of lipid. Rigidification of membranes was evaluated by monitoring the fluorescence polarization of 1,6-diphenyl-1,3,5-hexatriene embedded in membranes containing phosphatidylserine and dipalmitoylphosphatidylcholine. Cation-induced lipid intermixing of vesicles membranes and release of dye from the vesicles occurred in the same concentration range. With aluminum, these effects were observed with concentrations less than 25 microM. Significant rigidification of vesicle membranes was apparent with less than 25 microM of Al3+. Similar effects could only be observed with concentrations of Cd2+ and Mn2+ at least one order of magnitude higher (200 and 400 microM, respectively).

Divergent calciphoretic properties of negatively charged phospholipids in a two-phase system and in liposomes.

The ionophoretic properties of several negatively charged phospholipids for transporting calcium ions in an organic phase and across membranes of lipid vesicles have been studied. The amounts of Ca2+ translocated in the organic phase depend on the lipid type but also on the nature of the hydrocarbon chains. Under our experimental conditions, Ca2+ outflow from liposomes is observable with phosphatidic acid derived from egg yolk (PA) and with bovine brain phosphatidyl serine (PS) while dipalmitoyl phosphatidic acid (DPPA), cardiolipin (CL), phosphatidyl inositol (PI) and phosphatidyl inositol diphosphate (PIP2) remained unactive as calcium ionophores through lipid membranes but active as calcium translocators in an organic phase.

Structural considerations for calcium ionophoresis by prostaglandins.

The prostaglandins PGB2, PGE2 and PGF2 alpha were found to translocate calcium in a modified Pressman cell. At pH 7.40, PGB2 was more potent than PGE2 and than PGF2 alpha. When incorporated at a 1% molar ratio in liposomes made of cholesterol and different diacyl phosphatidyl choline, prostaglandins are able to mediate a slow calcium exchange diffusion. A significant prostaglandin-mediated calcium release that depends on the lipid matrix rigidity is observable at 37 degrees but not at 22 degrees. Conformational analysis of the complex formed by two molecules of prostaglandins and one calcium atom, either at a simulated membrane-water interface or in a simulated bulk lipid phase reveals rigid complexes with great distances between hydrophilic and hydrophobic gravity centres that predict low ionophoretic properties.

Nutrient-induced changes in the pH of pancreatic islet cells.

Fluorescein rapidly accumulates in rat pancreatic islets exposed to fluorescein diacetate. The influence of environmental agents upon cellular pH was examined in fluorescein-labelled islets by recording their fluorescence intensity at 520 nm after excitation at 490 and 435 nm, respectively. Glucose caused a rapid, sustained and dose-related increase in cellular pH. Another nutrient secretagogue, 2-ketoisocaproic acid, also increased cellular pH. The stimulation of islet cells by non-nutrient secretagogues, e.g. by glibenclamide or in response to an increase in extracellular K+ concentration, decreased cellular pH, indicating that the nutrient-induced increase in cellular pH is not merely a consequence of stimulated Ca2+ inflow and/or insulin release. In either the presence of amiloride or absence of bicarbonate, glucose decreased cellular pH. These results strongly suggest that the acidification of islet cells which can be expected from the increased metabolism of glucose in glucose-stimulated islets is normally masked and overcome by stimulation of such processes as Na+/H+ and HCO3-/Cl- exchange.

Cationic atmosphere and cation competition binding at negatively charged membranes: pathological implications of aluminum.

Binding of cations to membranes may be the basis for explaining some of the effects of several neurotoxic cations. The binding of Al3+ and the displacement of Ca2+ by Al3+ is studied with the aid of a simple mathematical approach described here and giving the same results when compared to the mathematical formalism described by Nir and Bentz. The method allows the simulation of membranes with low surface charge densities that are relevant for biochemical and pathological implications. Fluorescence quenching of the phospholipid analogue 1-palmitoyl-2-nitrobenzoxadiazol amino caproyl- phosphatidyl choline (C6-NBD-Ptd Cho) embedded in phosphatidyl serine membranes is used to determine the competition between calcium and aluminum for binding. The effect of aluminum in the presence of chelating agents is also studied by quenching experiments. Finally, inhibition of 45Ca2+ binding to phosphatidyl serine has also been investigated in a two-phase system.