Health status of the red-billed tropicbird (Phaethon aethereus) determined by hematology, biochemistry, blood gases, and physical examination.

The red-billed tropicbird, Phaethon aethereus, is a species of seabird native to the Galápagos archipelago, and widely distributed across the neotropics. General health, blood chemistry, and haematology parameters have not been published for this species. Blood analyses were performed on samples drawn from 51 clinically healthy red-billed tropicbirds captured from their burrows at Islote Pitt on San Cristóbal Island in July, 2016 (21) and Daphne Major Island in June, 2017 (30). In the field, a point of care blood analyser (iSTAT) was used to obtain results for HCO3-, pH, pCO2, pO2, TCO2, iCa, Na, K, Cl, Hb, HCT, anion gap, creatinine, glucose and urea nitrogen. Additionally, a portable Lactate PlusTM analyser was used to measure blood lactate, and blood smears were also created in situ. The blood slides were used to estimate leukocyte counts and 100-cell differentials. Alongside these biochemistry and haematology parameters, average heart rate, respiratory rate, body temperature and scaled mass index (calculated from weight and a body measurement) were compared to determine the standard measurements for a healthy individual. The baseline data, and reference intervals reported in this paper are essential to detecting changes in the health of red-billed tropicbirds in the future.

Prevalence of Toxoplasma gondii in Galapagos birds: Inference of risk factors associated with diet.

Toxoplasma gondii is a zoonotic intracellular parasite of particular concern in the conservation of wildlife due to its ability to infect all homeotherms and potentially cause acute fatal disease in naive species. In the Galapagos (Ecuador), an archipelago composed of more than a hundred islets and islands, the presence of T. gondii can be attributed to human-introduced domestic cats, but little is known about its transmission in wildlife populations. We compared the prevalence of antibodies against T. gondii in sympatric Galapagos wild bird species that differ in diet and contact with oocyst-contaminated soil to determine the relative importance of trophic habits as an exposure factor. Plasma samples were obtained from 163 land birds inhabiting Santa Cruz, one of the cat-inhabited islands, and from 187 seabirds breeding in cat-free surrounding islands (Daphne Major, North Seymour, and South Plaza). These samples were tested for the presence of T. gondii antibodies using the modified agglutination test (MAT ≥ 1:10). All seven species of land birds and 4/6 species of seabirds presented seropositive results. All great frigatebirds (Fregata minor) (N = 25) and swallow-tailed gulls (Creagrus furcatus) (N = 23) were seronegative. Prevalence ranged from 13% in Nazca boobies (Sula granti) to 100% in Galapagos mockingbirds (Mimus parvulus). It decreased from occasional carnivores (63.43%) to granivores-insectivores (26.22%), and strict piscivores (14.62%). These results indicate that the consumption of tissue cysts poses the highest risk of exposure to T. gondii for Galapagos birds, followed by the ingestion of plants and insects contaminated by oocysts as important transmission pathways.

Dirofilaria immitis Identified in Galapagos Sea Lions (Zalophus wollebaeki): A Wildlife Health and Conservation Concern.

The Galapagos sea lion (Zalophus wollebaeki), an endemic and endangered pinniped, faces an increasing threat due to infectious diseases related to domestic animals. Dirofilaria immitis, the parasite responsible for canine heartworm disease, is one such threat, as canine infections on the archipelago have been documented. We used a canine heartworm antigen test kit to analyze the blood from 25 juvenile Galapagos sea lions for D. immitis. Two (8%) sea lions tested positive for D. immitis antigen. Using morphologic and genetic assessments, we evaluated 20 filarial-like worms collected from within the heart of an adult male Galapagos sea lion during a previous routine postmortem examination. The intracardiac worms were morphologically consistent with adult D. immitis, and sequence analysis of targeted PCR amplicons confirmed their identity. This is the first report of D. immitis infection in Galapagos sea lions, which could become a major health problem for these pinnipeds. Further studies are necessary to confirm the level of threat from this parasite; however, widespread adoption of routine heartworm testing, prevention, and treatment in the canine population, and the control of mosquitos, could potentially reduce the disease impact on this endangered pinniped species.

Evaluating the Possibility of Transfusion Medicine, Through Crossmatching in Juvenile Galapagos Sea Lions (Zalophus wollebaeki).

The Galapagos sea lion (Zalophus wollebaeki) is an endemic pinniped to the Galapagos archipelago, and like most wild mammals, is at risk for anemia due to trauma, infectious disease, and poor nutrition. This study evaluated the health status of 26 juvenile Galapagos sea lions on the island of San Cristobal prior to evaluating 100 crossmatch combinations. On evaluation, all but one sea lion had no major systemic abnormalities. Of the 100 crossmatches performed, 23% had minor reactions. The most significant reaction was weak macroscopic agglutination found in 4% of samples. The small percentage of agglutination reactions suggests a small proportion of naturally occurring alloantibodies in this species and may be consistent with a low risk of acute immune-mediated hemolytic transfusion reaction.

HEALTH STATUS OF NAZCA BOOBIES (SULA GRANTI) ON DAPHNE MAJOR ISLAND IN THE GALÁPAGOS DETERMINED BY HEMATOLOGY, BIOCHEMISTRY, AND PHYSICAL EXAMINATION.

Island species are particularly vulnerable to environmental disturbances and introduced pathogens. Conducting health assessments of wild populations in the Galápagos improves the ability of wildlife managers and veterinarians to detect deteriorations in health status. Seabirds in particular are useful species to monitor due to their colonial breeding and wide migration range. Nazca boobies (Sula granti) in a breeding colony at Daphne Major (n = 30) were given physical examinations, and blood samples were collected for hematology and biochemistry using an iSTAT Portable Clinical Analyzer. Female boobies had longer wing length than males, as well as lower blood urea nitrogen, creatinine, and white blood cell counts. This could be attributed to sexual dimorphism or differences in foraging and mating strategies between the sexes. The time between capture and blood collection had a significant inverse relationship on plasma sodium, potassium, hemoglobin, anion gaps, and lymphocyte counts, suggesting that blood sampling in Nazca boobies should be done in less than 5 m to avoid the impacts of stress on hematological parameters. This is the first health assessment on the breeding colony of Nazca boobies at Daphne Major, and the results can inform future monitoring in this species as well as other sulids.

Total injectable anesthesia of dogs and cats for remote location veterinary sterilization clinic.

BACKGROUND: Sterilization clinics often occur in remote places where anesthesia machines and compressed oxygen are unavailable. This study describes the use of total injectable anesthesia in dogs and cats presented for sterilization in a remote location. RESULTS: A total of 100 animals were sterilized; 26 female cats (CF), 22 male cats (CM), 28 female dogs (DF), and 24 male dogs (DM). CF were anesthetized with dexmedetomidine (20 mcg/kg), ketamine (8 mg/kg) and hydromorphone (0.1 mg/kg) IM. CM were anesthetized with dexmedetomidine (15 mcg/kg), ketamine (5 mg/kg) and hydromorphone (0.1 mg/kg) IM. Insufficient anesthesia in cats was treated with alfaxalone (1 mg/kg) IM. All cats were administered meloxicam at 0.3 mg/kg SQ. DF were anesthetized with dexmedetomidine (15 mcg/kg), ketamine (7-10 mg/kg) and hydromorphone (0.1 mg/kg) IM. DM were anesthetized with dexmedetomidine (15 mcg/kg), ketamine (5 mg/kg) and hydromorphone (0.1 mg/kg) IM. All dogs had IV catheter and endotracheal tube placed. If SpO2 < 91%, ventilation was assisted with an Ambu bag. Insufficient anesthesia in dogs was treated with alfaxalone (1 mg/kg) IV. All dogs were administered meloxicam at 0.2 mg/kg SQ. Following surgery, atipamezole (0.05-0.1 mg/kg) IM was administered to any patient that did not have voluntary movement. All patients survived and were discharged. Less than 25% of cats and male dogs required supplemental anesthesia. Fifty seven percent of female dogs required supplemental anesthesia. More than 89% of patients (in any group) required atipamezole administration. One cat recovered with agitation and hyperthermia (41.1C/ 106F). Some dogs required ventilatory assistance to remain normoxemic while anesthetized. CONCLUSION: Total injectable anesthesia can be accomplished for remote location sterilization clinics with minimal morbidity.

HEALTH STATUS AND BASELINE HEMATOLOGY, BIOCHEMISTRY, AND BLOOD GAS VALUES OF GALAPAGOS SHEARWATERS (PUFFINUS SUBALARIS).

The Galápagos shearwater, Puffinus subalaris, is a seabird endemic to the Galápagos archipelago. Hematology, blood chemistry, and general health parameters have not been published for this species. Analyses were run on blood samples drawn from 20 clinically healthy Galápagos shearwaters captured by hand at their nests at Islote Pitt on San Cristóbal Island in July 2016. A portable blood analyzer (iSTAT) was used to obtain near immediate field results for pH, pO2, pCO2, TCO2, HCO3 -, hematocrit, hemoglobin, sodium, potassium, chloride, ionized calcium, creatinine, urea nitrogen, anion gap, and glucose. Blood lactate was measured using a portable Lactate Plus analyzer. The reported results provide baseline data that can be used for comparisons among populations and in detecting changes in health status among Galápagos shearwaters.

Baseline haematology, biochemistry, blood gas values and health status of the Galapagos swallow-tailed gull (Creagrus furcatus).

The swallow-tailed gull, Creagrus furcatus, is a seabird endemic to the Galápagos archipelago. In general health, blood chemistry and haematology, parameters have not been published for this species. Blood analyses were run on samples drawn from 58 clinically healthy swallow-tailed gulls captured at Islote Pitt on San Cristóbal Island in July 2016 (28) and South Plaza Island in June 2017 (30). A point of care blood analyzer (iSTAT) was used in the field to obtain results for HCO3 -, pH, pCO2, pO2, TCO2, anion gap, chloride, creatinine, glucose, haematocrit, haemoglobin, ionized calcium, potassium, sodium and urea nitrogen. A portable Lactate Plus™ analyzer was used to measure lactate. The baseline data reported is valuable for comparisons amongst different populations in the archipelago and to detect changes in health status of Galápagos swallow-tailed gulls.

EVALUATION OF THE OPHTHALMIC DISEASE AND HISTOPATHOLOGIC EFFECTS DUE TO THE OCULAR TREMATODE PHILOPHTHALMUS ZALOPHI ON JUVENILE GALAPAGOS SEA LIONS ( ZALOPHUS WOLLEBAEKI).

The Galapagos sea lion ( Zalophus wollebaeki) is an otariid species endemic to the Galapagos archipelago and is currently listed as endangered. The ocular trematode Philophthalmus zalophi was recently reported to affect the survival of juvenile Galapagos sea lions on Santa Cruz Island, resulting in marked ophthalmic changes. This study evaluated the ophthalmic disease and histopathologic effects of P. zalophi on juvenile Galapagos sea lions in the largest rookery located on San Cristóbal Island. Twenty juvenile Galapagos sea lions (10 male and 10 female) were evaluated among five sites in the rookery El Malecón. Ophthalmic examination, including fluorescein staining and evaluation of the adnexa, cornea, and sclera, were performed on each eye. The presence, number, and location of ocular parasites were determined, and parasites were collected for identification. Conjunctival biopsy was performed on 11 animals: 2 that lacked parasites and gross lesions and 9 with both parasites and gross lesions. All parasites collected were confirmed as P. zalophi and identified in 80% (16/20) of the study animals and 70% (28/40) of the examined eyes. Philophthalmus zalophi was most frequently found attached to the nictitating membrane but also located on the palpebral conjunctiva or cornea. The most common clinical signs were varying degrees of conjunctival hyperemia (28/40 eyes), most frequently of the nictitating membrane and mucoid ocular discharge (12/40 eyes). The number of parasites was significantly associated with the degree of conjunctival hyperemia ( P < 0.001). Histopathology of conjunctival biopsies revealed organized lymphoid follicles and lymphoplasmacytic infiltrates. The histopathologic changes and gross lesions were likely due to the parasite's attachment to the conjunctiva. This study provides additional details of P. zalophi infection in juvenile Galapagos sea lions. Further research is warranted to detail the life cycle of this parasite, transmission to sea lions, and potential treatment protocols.

Haematology and biochemistry of the San Cristóbal Lava Lizard (Microlophus bivittatus).

The San Cristóbal lava lizard, Microlophus bivittatus, is one of nine species of lava lizards endemic to the Galápagos Islands of Ecuador. No information presently exists about baseline health parameters for any of these species. We analysed blood samples drawn from 47 lizards (25 males and 22 females) captured at two locations on San Cristóbal Island. A portable blood analyser (iSTAT) was used to obtain near-immediate field results for total CO2, lactate, sodium, potassium, ionized calcium, glucose and haemoglobin. Standard laboratory haematology techniques were employed for differential white blood cell counts and haematocrit determination. Body temperature, heart rate and body measurements were also recorded. We found significant differences in haematocrit values between males and females. The values reported in this study provide baseline data that may be useful in detecting changes in health status among lava lizards affected by natural disturbances or anthropogenic threats. Our findings might also be helpful in future efforts to demonstrate associations between specific biochemical or haematological parameters and disease. Because there are several related species on different islands in the Galápagos archipelago, comparisons between populations and species will be of interest. Lay Summary:Haematology and biochemistry values of the San Cristóbal lava lizard Microlophus bivittatus, along with several other health parameters (morphometrics and temperature), are reported for the first time.

Health Status of Great Frigatebirds (Fregata minor) Determined by Haematology, Biochemistry, Blood Gases, and Physical Examination.

The great frigatebird, Fregata minor, is a widely distributed seabird native to the Galápagos archipelago. Haematology and blood chemistry parameters have been published for this species but not from the San Cristóbal and North Seymour great frigatebird breeding colonies. Analyses were run on blood samples drawn from 25 great frigatebirds captured by hand at their nests at Punta Pitt on San Cristóbal Island and 30 birds on North Seymour Island, Galápagos Islands. A portable blood analyser (iSTAT) was used to obtain near immediate field results for pH, pO2, pCO2, TCO2, HCO3- , haematocrit (Hct), haemoglobin (Hb), sodium (Na), potassium (K), chloride (Cl), ionized calcium (iCa), creatinine, urea nitrogen, anion gap and glucose. Blood lactate was measured using a portable Lactate Plus™ analyser. Average heart rate, respiratory rate, body weight, body temperature, biochemistry and haematology parameters were comparable to healthy individuals of other Fregatidae. The reported results provide baseline data that can be used for comparisons among populations and in detecting changes in health status among Galápagos great frigatebirds.

HEALTH STATUS OF RED-FOOTED BOOBIES ( SULA SULA) DETERMINED BY HEMATOLOGY, BIOCHEMISTRY, BLOOD GASES, AND PHYSICAL EXAMINATION.

The red-footed booby ( Sula sula) is a widely distributed sulid native to the Galápagos archipelago. Hematology and blood chemistry parameters have been published for this species, but not from the San Cristóbal rookery. Analyses were run on blood samples drawn from 31 manually restrained red-footed boobies that were captured by hand from their nests at Punta Pitt on San Cristóbal Island. A portable blood analyzer (iSTAT) was used to obtain near immediate field results for pH, partial pressure of oxygen, partial pressure of carbon dioxide, bicarbonate, hematocrit, hemoglobin, sodium, potassium, ionized calcium, and glucose. Blood lactate was measured using a portable Lactate Plus™ analyzer. Average heart rate, respiratory rate, body weight, body temperature, and biochemistry and hematology parameters were comparable to those of healthy individuals of other sulids. The reported results provide baseline data that can be used for comparisons among populations and in detecting changes in health status among Galápagos red-footed boobies.

Health Status of Galápagos Sea Lions (Zalophus wollebaeki) on San Cristóbal Island Rookeries Determined by Hematology, Biochemistry, Blood Gases, and Physical Examination.

The Galápagos sea lion, Zalophus wollebaeki, is an endemic and endangered species subject to population decline associated with environmental variability, such as El Niño events, constant feeding stress, and exposure to diseases through contact with introduced species. Reference blood parameter intervals have been published for some pinniped species, but baseline biochemical and blood gas values are lacking from Z. wollebaeki. We analyzed blood samples from 30 juvenile Galápagos sea lions (19 females, 11 males) captured in two rookeries on San Cristóbal Island. A portable blood analyzer (iSTAT) was used to obtain near-immediate field results for pH, partial pressure of O2, partial pressure of CO2, bicarbonate (HCO3(-)), hematocrit (Hct), hemoglobin, Na, K, ionized Ca, and glucose, and blood lactate was measured using a portable Lactate Plus(TM) analyzer. Average heart rate, biochemistry, and hematology parameters were comparable with healthy individuals of other pinniped species. Hemoglobin was significantly correlated with body condition of juvenile Galápagos sea lions. When compared with available blood values of clinically healthy California sea lions, Galápagos sea lions had higher total protein and Hct and lower Ca and K levels. Our results provide baseline data that may be useful in comparisons among populations and in detecting changes in health status among Galápagos sea lions.