Nicolas Bernstein and Pyotr Anokhin: pioneers of modern psychophysiology.

The works of N.A. Bernstein on the construction of daily life movements in humans and those of P.K. Anokhin on the integrative nature of the nervous system in animals led to new descriptions of the brain functioning and behaviour, which contributed to the development of neuropsychology by A.R. Luria. Their work, which was considered as conflicting with Pavlov's reflex theory, which was sanctioned by the Soviet authorities, were for a long time disregarded in the USSR, and were unrecognised in the West due to the lack of English translations which were only produced much later. Bernstein described activity as being directed toward the resolution of a specific motor problem, programmed and guided by a copy of the desired solution constructed by the brain (a model of the future), and implemented and regulated according to the probability theory through sensory corrections carried out at different levels in the brain. Anokhin's systemic theory of brain functioning was defined by a complex integrative process with adaptive value, carried out by a system of permanent interactions between a cortical centre and the peripheric motor apparatus, regulated by reverse afferences from the periphery. These descriptions appear to be close to modern conceptions of brain functioning and continue to be of interest in the study of the relationships between psychic activity and brain function.

[Nicolas Bernstein and Pyotr Anokhin. Pioneers of modern psychophysiology]. / Nicolas Bernstein (1896-1966) et Pyotr Anokhin (1898-1974).

The works of N.A. Bernstein on the construction of daily life movements in man and those of P.K. Anokhin on the integrative character of the nervous system in animal led to new descriptions of the brain functioning and behavior, which contributed to the development of neuropsychology by A.R. Luria. Their works, considered as conflicting with the Pavlov's reflex theory sanctioned by the Soviet authorities, were for a long time disregarded in URSS, and unrecognized in Occident due to scanty and late English translations. Bernstein described activity as directed toward the resolution of a specific motor problem, programmed and guided by a copy of the desired solution constructed by the brain (a model of the future), and implemented and regulated according to the probability theory by sensory corrections carried out at different levels of the brain organization. Anokhin's systemic theory of the brain functioning was defined by a complex integrative process with adaptive value, carried out by a system of permanent interactions between a cortical center and the peripheric motor apparatus, regulated by reverse afferences from the periphery. These descriptions appear to be close to modern conceptions of brain functioning, and remain of interest in the study of the relationships between psychic activity and brain functioning.

Alexandre Romanovitch Luria (1902-1977). Partie I. Le psychologue.

Starting with an overview of AR Luria's biography, this article presents his work in general psychology which is key to his conception of neuropsychology (this will be developed in a forthcoming paper). A focus is made on the construction of the historical and cultural theory of psychology he developed with LS Vygotski, according to which human natural mental activities, related to their genetic evolution and shared by all humankind, are transformed into higher cortical functions (i.e., conscious and voluntary activities) through the mediation of language and the products of social activity, and thus differ according to the development of societies. Luria's work is reviewed to support the theory through his expeditions in Central Asia, his studies on twins and children with intellectual disabilities, and the demonstration of the role of speech in child development on higher mental activities and regulation of behaviour.

[Ivan Pavlov (1849-1935): His life and conditional reflexes story revisited]. / Ivan Pavlov (1849-1936) : l'histoire revisitée de sa vie et des réflexes conditionnels.

Historiography of IP Pavlov and his description of conditional reflexes has been thoroughly specified by the records collected between 1990-2000 by DP Todes, an American science historian specializing in Russia. The Pavlov's intent was to study the nervous processes underlying psychical activity by the conditional reflexes, not the conditioning theory. In his modeling of the higher nervous activity, he highlighted the dynamic and greatly plastic character of brain functioning as well as the functional character of some long-term behavioral disorders in dogs. Far from the Soviet dogmatic presentation of the "Pavlovian doctrine", the complexity of the Pavlov's thought also paved the way to innovative conceptions in opposition with his former modeling developed by Soviet physiologists such as NA Bernstein and PK Anokhin, and psychologists such as LS Vygotski and AR Luria.

[Alexander Romanovich Luria (1902-1977). Part I. The psychologist]. / Alexandre Romanovitch Luria (1902-1977). Partie I. Le psychologue.

Starting with an overview of AR Luria's biography, we will present his works in general psychology which are key to his conception of neuropsychology (this will be developed in a forthcoming paper). We will focus on the construction of the historical and cultural theory of psychology developed with LS Vygotski, according to which, in man, the natural mental activities, related to the genetic evolution and shared by all humankind, are transformed into higher cortical functions (that is conscious and voluntary activities) through the mediation of language and the products of social activity, thus differ according to the development of societies. We review the Luria's studies devoted to support the theory in his expeditions in Central Asia, his studies in twins and intellectual disabled children, and the demonstration of the role of speech in the child development of the higher mental activities and regulation of behavior.