Mortality with concurrent treatment with gabapentin and opioids among people with spine diagnoses in the U.S. Medicare population: a propensity-matched cohort study.

IMPORTANCE: Given the negative impact of opioid use on population health, prescriptions for alternative pain-relieving medications, including gabapentin, have increased. Concurrent gabapentin and opioid prescriptions are commonly reported in retrospective studies of opioid-related overdose deaths. OBJECTIVE: To determine whether people who filled gabapentin and opioid prescriptions concurrently ('gabapentin + opioids') had greater mortality than those who filled an active control medication (tricyclic antidepressants [TCAs] or duloxetine) and opioids concurrently ('TCAs/duloxetine + opioids'). We hypothesized that people treated with gabapentin + opioids would have higher mortality rates compared to people treated with TCAs/duloxetine + opioids. DESIGN: Propensity score-matched cohort study with an incident user, active control design. The median (maximum) follow-up was 45 (1093) days. SETTING: Population-based. PARTICIPANTS: Medicare beneficiaries with spine-related diagnoses 2017-2019. The primary analysis included those who concurrently (within 30 days) filled at least 1 incident gabapentin + at least 1 opioid or at least 1 incident TCA/duloxetine + at least 1 opioid. EXPOSURES: People treated with gabapentin + opioids (n=67,133) were matched on demographic and clinical factors in a 1:1 ratio to people treated with TCAs/duloxetine + opioids (n=67,133). MAIN OUTCOMES AND MEASURES: The primary outcome was mortality at any time. A secondary outcome was occurrence of a major medical complication at any time. RESULTS: Among 134,266 participants (median age 73.4 years; 66.7% female), 2360 died before the end of follow-up. No difference in mortality was observed between groups (adjusted hazard ratio (HR) and 95% confidence interval (CI) for gabapentin + opioids was 0.98 (0.90, 1.06); p=0.63). However, people treated with gabapentin + opioids were at slightly increased risk of a major medical complication (1.02 (1.00, 1.04); p=0.03) compared to those treated with TCAs/duloxetine + opioids. Results were similar in analyses (a) restricted to less than or = 30-day follow-up and (b) that required at least 2 fills of each prescription. CONCLUSIONS AND RELEVANCE: When treating pain in older adults taking opioids, the addition of gabapentin did not increase mortality risk relative to addition of TCAs or duloxetine. However, providers should be cognizant of a small increased risk of major medical complications among opioid users initiating gabapentin compared to those initiating TCAs or duloxetine.

Back to the Future: A Report From the 16th International Forum for Back and Neck Pain Research in Primary Care and Updated Research Agenda.

STUDY DESIGN: The 16th meeting of the International Forum for Back and Neck Pain Research in Primary Care was held in Québec City in July 2019 under the theme of innovation. This paper addresses the state of research in the field. OBJECTIVE: To ascertain the evolution of knowledge and clinical application in back and neck pain and identify shifting research priorities. MATERIALS AND METHODS: After a brief presentation of the Forum and its history, the current state of the field was depicted from the scientific program and the recordings of the plenary and parallel oral and poster communications of Forum XVI. Research agendas established in 1995 and 1997 were updated from a survey of a multidisciplinary group of experts in the field. A discussion of the progress made and challenges ahead follows. RESULTS: While much progress has been made at improving knowledge at managing back pain in the past 25 years, most research priorities from earlier decades are still pertinent. The need for integration of physical and psychological interventions represents a key challenge, as is the need to better understand the biological mechanisms underlying back and neck pain to develop more effective interventions. Stemming the tide of back and neck pain in low and middle-income countries and avoiding the adoption of low-value interventions appear particularly important. The Lancet Low Back Pain Series initiative, arising from the previous fora, and thoughts on implementing best practices were extensively discussed, recognizing the challenges to evidence-based knowledge and practice given competing interests and incentives. CONCLUSION: With the quantity and quality of research on back and neck pain increasing over the years, an update of research priorities helped to identify key issues in primary care.

Long-term effectiveness of epidural steroid injections after new episodes of low back pain in older adults.

BACKGROUND: There is limited research on the long-term effectiveness of epidural steroid injections (ESI) in older adults despite the high prevalence of back and leg pain in this age group. We tested the hypotheses that older adults undergoing ESI, compared to patients not receiving ESI: (1) have worse pain, disability and quality of life ('outcomes') pre-ESI, (2) have improved outcomes after ESI and (3) have improved outcomes due to a specific ESI effect. METHODS: We prospectively studied patients ≥65 years old presenting to primary care with new episodes of back pain in three US healthcare systems (BOLD registry). Outcomes were leg and back pain intensity, disability and quality of life, assessed at baseline and 3-, 6-, 12- and 24-month follow-ups. We categorized participants as: (1) ESI within 6 months from the index visit (n = 295); (2) no ESI within 6 months (n = 4809); (3) no ESI within 6 months, propensity-score matched to group 1 (n = 483). We analysed the data using linear regression and Generalized Estimating Equations. RESULTS: Pain intensity, disability and quality of life at baseline were significantly worse at baseline in ESI patients (group 1) than in group 2. The improvement from baseline to 24 months in all outcomes was statistically significant for group 1. However, no statistically significant differences were observed between outcome trajectories for the propensity-score matched groups 1 and 3. CONCLUSIONS: Older adults treated with ESI have long-term improvement. However, the improvement is unlikely the result of a specific ESI effect. SIGNIFICANCE: In this large, two-year, prospective study in older adults with a new episode of low back pain, back pain, leg pain, disability and quality of life improved after epidural steroid injections; however, propensity-score matching revealed that the improvement was unlikely the result of a specific effect of the injections, indicating that epidural steroids are unlikely to provide long-term benefits in older adults with new episodes of back and leg pain.

Economic Evaluation: A Randomized Pragmatic Trial of a Primary Care-based Cognitive Behavioral Intervention for Adults Receiving Long-term Opioids for Chronic Pain.

BACKGROUND: Chronic pain is prevalent and costly; cost-effective nonpharmacological approaches that reduce pain and improve patient functioning are needed. OBJECTIVE: Report the incremental cost-effectiveness ratio (ICER), compared with usual care, of cognitive behavioral therapy aimed at improving functioning and pain among patients with chronic pain on long-term opioid treatment. DESIGN: Economic evaluation conducted alongside a pragmatic cluster randomized trial. SUBJECTS: Adults with chronic pain on long-term opioid treatment (N=814). INTERVENTION: A cognitive behavioral therapy intervention teaching pain self-management skills in 12 weekly, 90-minute groups delivered by an interdisciplinary team (behaviorists, nurses) with additional support from physical therapists, and pharmacists. OUTCOME MEASURES: Cost per quality adjusted life year (QALY) gained, and cost per additional responder (≥30% improvement on standard scale assessment of Pain, Enjoyment, General Activity, and Sleep). Costs were estimated as-delivered, and replication. RESULTS: Per patient intervention replication costs were $2145 ($2574 as-delivered). Those costs were completely offset by lower medical care costs; inclusive of the intervention, total medical care over follow-up was $1841 lower for intervention patients. Intervention group patients also had greater QALY and responder gains than did controls. Supplemental analyses using pain-related medical care costs revealed ICERs of $35,000, and $53,000 per QALY (for replication, and as-delivered intervention costs, respectively); the ICER when excluding patients with outlier follow-up costs was $106,000. LIMITATIONS: Limited to 1-year follow-up; identification of pain-related utilization potentially incomplete. CONCLUSION: The intervention was the optimal choice at commonly accepted levels of willingness-to-pay for QALY gains; this finding was robust to sensitivity analyses.

A Primary Care-Based Cognitive Behavioral Therapy Intervention for Long-Term Opioid Users With Chronic Pain : A Randomized Pragmatic Trial.

BACKGROUND: Chronic pain is common, disabling, and costly. Few clinical trials have examined cognitive behavioral therapy (CBT) interventions embedded in primary care settings to improve chronic pain among those receiving long-term opioid therapy. OBJECTIVE: To determine the effectiveness of a group-based CBT intervention for chronic pain. DESIGN: Pragmatic, cluster randomized controlled trial. (ClinicalTrials.gov: NCT02113592). SETTING: Kaiser Permanente health care systems in Georgia, Hawaii, and the Northwest. PARTICIPANTS: Adults (aged ≥18 years) with mixed chronic pain conditions receiving long-term opioid therapy. INTERVENTION: A CBT intervention teaching pain self-management skills in 12 weekly, 90-minute groups delivered by an interdisciplinary team (behaviorist, nurse, physical therapist, and pharmacist) versus usual care. MEASUREMENTS: Self-reported pain impact (primary outcome, as measured by the PEGS scale [pain intensity and interference with enjoyment of life, general activity, and sleep]) was assessed quarterly over 12 months. Pain-related disability, satisfaction with care, and opioid and benzodiazepine use based on electronic health care data were secondary outcomes. RESULTS: A total of 850 patients participated, representing 106 clusters of primary care providers (mean age, 60.3 years; 67.4% women); 816 (96.0%) completed follow-up assessments. Intervention patients sustained larger reductions on all self-reported outcomes from baseline to 12-month follow-up; the change in PEGS score was -0.434 point (95% CI, -0.690 to -0.178 point) for pain impact, and the change in pain-related disability was -0.060 point (CI, -0.084 to -0.035 point). At 6 months, intervention patients reported higher satisfaction with primary care (difference, 0.230 point [CI, 0.053 to 0.406 point]) and pain services (difference, 0.336 point [CI, 0.129 to 0.543 point]). Benzodiazepine use decreased more in the intervention group (absolute risk difference, -0.055 [CI, -0.099 to -0.011]), but opioid use did not differ significantly between groups. LIMITATION: The inclusion of only patients with insurance in large integrated health care systems limited generalizability, and the clinical effect of change in scores is unclear. CONCLUSION: Primary care-based CBT, using frontline clinicians, produced modest but sustained reductions in measures of pain and pain-related disability compared with usual care but did not reduce use of opioid medication. PRIMARY FUNDING SOURCE: National Institutes of Health.

Patient, Provider, and Clinic Characteristics Associated with Opioid and Non-Opioid Pain Prescriptions for Patients Receiving Low Back Imaging in Primary Care.

BACKGROUND: To describe characteristics of patients, providers, and clinics associated with opioid or non-opioid pain medication prescribing patterns for patients who received lower spine imaging in primary care clinics. METHODS: In these secondary analyses of the Lumbar Imaging with Reporting of Epidemiology (LIRE) study, a randomized controlled trial conducted in 4 health systems in the United States, we evaluated characteristics associated with receipt of pain medication prescriptions. The outcomes were receipt of prescriptions for opioid or, separately, non-opioid pain medications within 90 days after imaging. Among patients who received opioid or non-opioid prescriptions, we evaluated receipt of multiple prescriptions in the year following imaging. Mixed models were used to estimate adjusted odds ratios (ORs) and 95% confidence intervals (CIs). RESULTS: Compared with whites, patients identified as Asian (OR, 0.53; 95% CI, 0.51-0.56), Native Hawaiian/Pacific Islander (OR, 0.73; 95% CI, 0.64-0.83), multiracial (OR, 0.84; 95% CI, 0.71-0.98) or Black (OR, 0.92; 95% CI, 0.89-0.96) had significantly reduced odds for receiving prescriptions for opioids within 90 days. Patients identified as Native American/Alaska Native had greater odds for receiving prescriptions for non-opioid pain medications within 90 days (OR, 1.12; 95% CI, 1.01-1.24). Receipt of pain prescriptions 120 days before imaging was strongly predictive of subsequent receipt of pain prescriptions across all categories. CONCLUSIONS: After adjusting for factors that could affect prescribing, the strongest differences observed in pain-medication prescribing were across racial categories and for patients with previous pain prescriptions. Further research is needed to understand these differences and to optimize prescribing.

Effects of Including Epidemiologic Data in Lumbar Spine Imaging Reports on Prescribing Non-Opioid Medications for Pain.

BACKGROUND: Information on the prevalence of common imaging findings among patients without back pain in spine imaging reports might affect pain medication prescribing for patients with back pain. Prior research on inserting this text suggested a small reduction in opioid prescribing. OBJECTIVE: To evaluate the effect of epidemiologic information in spine imaging reports on non-opioid pain medication prescribing for primary care patients with back pain. DESIGN: Post hoc analysis of the Lumbar Imaging with Reporting of Epidemiology cluster-randomized trial. PARTICIPANTS: A total of 170,680 patients aged ≥ 18 years from four healthcare systems who received thoracolumbar, lumbar, or lumbosacral spine imaging from 2013 to 2016 and had not received a prescription for non-opioid pain medication in the preceding 120 days. INTERVENTION: Text of age- and modality-specific epidemiologic benchmarks indicating the prevalence of common findings in people without back pain inserted into thoracolumbar, lumbar, or lumbosacral spine imaging reports at intervention clinics. MAIN MEASURES: Primary outcomes: any non-opioid prescription within 90 days after index imaging, overall, and by sub-class (skeletal muscle relaxants, NSAIDs, gabapentinoids, tricyclic antidepressants, benzodiazepines, duloxetine). SECONDARY OUTCOMES: count of non-opioid prescriptions within 90 days, overall, and by sub-class. KEY RESULTS: The intervention was not associated with the likelihood of patients receiving at least one prescription for new non-opioid pain-related medications, overall (adjusted OR, 1.02; 95% CI, 0.97-1.08) or by sub-class. The intervention was not associated with the number of prescriptions for any non-opioid medication (adjusted incidence rate ratio [IRR], 1.02; 95% CI, 0.99-1.04). However, the intervention was associated with more new prescriptions for NSAIDs (IRR, 1.12) and tricyclic antidepressants (IRR, 1.11). CONCLUSIONS: Inserting epidemiologic text in spine imaging reports had no effect on whether new non-opioid pain-related medications were prescribed but was associated with the number of new prescriptions for certain non-opioid sub-classes. TRIAL REGISTRATION: ClinicalTrials.gov identifier: NCT02015455.

Providing Epidemiological Data in Lumbar Spine Imaging Reports Did Not Affect Subsequent Utilization of Spine Procedures: Secondary Outcomes from a Stepped-Wedge Randomized Controlled Trial.

OBJECTIVE: To evaluate the effect of inserting epidemiological information into lumbar spine imaging reports on subsequent nonsurgical and surgical procedures involving the thoracolumbosacral spine and sacroiliac joints. DESIGN: Analysis of secondary outcomes from the Lumbar Imaging with Reporting of Epidemiology (LIRE) pragmatic stepped-wedge randomized trial. SETTING: Primary care clinics within four integrated health care systems in the United States. SUBJECTS: 238,886 patients ≥18 years of age who received lumbar diagnostic imaging between 2013 and 2016. METHODS: Clinics were randomized to receive text containing age- and modality-specific epidemiological benchmarks indicating the prevalence of common spine imaging findings in people without low back pain, inserted into lumbar spine imaging reports (the "LIRE intervention"). The study outcomes were receiving 1) any nonsurgical lumbosacral or sacroiliac spine procedure (lumbosacral epidural steroid injection, facet joint injection, or facet joint radiofrequency ablation; or sacroiliac joint injection) or 2) any surgical procedure involving the lumbar, sacral, or thoracic spine (decompression surgery or spinal fusion or other spine surgery). RESULTS: The LIRE intervention was not significantly associated with subsequent utilization of nonsurgical lumbosacral or sacroiliac spine procedures (odds ratio [OR] = 1.01, 95% confidence interval [CI] 0.93-1.09; P = 0.79) or any surgical procedure (OR = 0.99, 95 CI 0.91-1.07; P = 0.74) involving the lumbar, sacral, or thoracic spine. The intervention was also not significantly associated with any individual spine procedure. CONCLUSIONS: Inserting epidemiological text into spine imaging reports had no effect on nonsurgical or surgical procedure utilization among patients receiving lumbar diagnostic imaging.

Utility of the Pain Medication Questionnaire to predict aberrant urine drug tests: Results from a longitudinal cohort study.

Identifying patients at risk of misusing prescription opioids is a priority. Standardized risk measures exist, but prior research has been limited in an assessment of their utility by a reliance on cross-sectional or retrospective analyses. In this study, the Pain Medication Questionnaire (PMQ), a standardized self-report measure of risk for prescription opioid misuse, was used to predict aberrant urine drug test (UDT) results over the subsequent 24 months. At baseline, participants who were prescribed long-term opioid therapy completed self-report measures assessing pain, function, and quality of life; this also included the PMQ. Medical record data were abstracted for 24 months postbaseline to collect results of UDTs administered during clinical care. Among participants, 12.9% had a UDT result that was positive for a nonprescribed or illicit substance, 18.9% had an aberrant negative UDT result, 3.6% had aberrant positive and negative UDT results, and the remaining 64.6% had expected UDT results. Average PMQ score at baseline did not significantly differ based on participants' type of UDT result over 24 months of follow-up. Participant variables that were significantly associated with a subsequent aberrant positive UDT were higher prescription opioid dose and hazardous alcohol use; those associated with an aberrant negative UDT were lower prescription opioid dose and hazardous alcohol use; no variable was associated with combined positive and negative UDT results. In conclusion, total PMQ score was not predictive of aberrant positive or negative UDT results. More work is needed to identify optimal strategies of screening for risk of aberrant UDT results. (PsycInfo Database Record (c) 2021 APA, all rights reserved).

Prospective Investigation of Factors Associated with Prescription Opioid Dose Escalation among Patients in Integrated Health Systems.

BACKGROUND: Prior research has identified factors associated with prescription opioid initiation, but little is known about the prevalence or predictors of dose escalation among patients already prescribed long-term opioid therapy (LTOT). OBJECTIVE: This was a 2-year prospective cohort study to examine patient and clinician factors associated with opioid dose escalation. DESIGN: A prospective cohort study. Participants were seen at baseline and every 6 months for a total of 2 years. PARTICIPANTS: Patients prescribed a stable dose of LTOT for musculoskeletal pain were recruited from two integrated health systems (Kaiser Permanente and the Department of Veterans Affairs, respectively). MAIN MEASURES: The prescription opioid dose was based on pharmacy records and self-report. Administrative data were gathered on characteristics of the opioid-prescribing clinician and healthcare utilization. Participants completed measures of pain, functioning, and quality of life. KEY RESULTS: Of enrolled participants (n = 517), 19.5% had an opioid dose increase. In multivariate analyses, patient variables associated with dose escalation were lower opioid dose (hazard ratio [HR] = 0.86, 95% confidence interval [CI] = 0.79-0.94, for every 10-mg increase in baseline dose) and greater pain catastrophizing (HR = 1.03, 95% CI = 1.01-1.05). Other variables associated with dose escalation were as follows: receiving medications from a nurse practitioner primary care provider (HR = 2.10, 95% CI = 1.12-3.96) or specialty physician (HR = 3.18, 95% CI = 1.22-8.34), relative to a physician primary care provider, and having undergone surgery within the past 6 months (HR = 1.80, 95% CI = 1.10-2.94). Other variables, including pain intensity, pain disability, or depression, were not associated with dose escalation. CONCLUSIONS: In this 2-year prospective cohort study, variables associated with opioid dose escalation were lower opioid dose, higher pain catastrophizing, receiving opioids from a medical specialist (rather than primary care clinician) or nurse practitioner, and having recently undergone surgery. Study findings highlight intervention points that may be helpful for reducing the likelihood of future prescription opioid dose escalation.

The Effect of Including Benchmark Prevalence Data of Common Imaging Findings in Spine Image Reports on Health Care Utilization Among Adults Undergoing Spine Imaging: A Stepped-Wedge Randomized Clinical Trial.

Importance: Lumbar spine imaging frequently reveals findings that may seem alarming but are likely unrelated to pain. Prior work has suggested that inserting data on the prevalence of imaging findings among asymptomatic individuals into spine imaging reports may reduce unnecessary subsequent interventions. Objective: To evaluate the impact of including benchmark prevalence data in routine spinal imaging reports on subsequent spine-related health care utilization and opioid prescriptions. Design, Setting, and Participants: This stepped-wedge, pragmatic randomized clinical trial included 250 401 adult participants receiving care from 98 primary care clinics at 4 large health systems in the United States. Participants had imaging of their backs between October 2013 and September 2016 without having had spine imaging in the prior year. Data analysis was conducted from November 2018 to October 2019. Interventions: Either standard lumbar spine imaging reports (control group) or reports containing age-appropriate prevalence data for common imaging findings in individuals without back pain (intervention group). Main Outcomes and Measures: Health care utilization was measured in spine-related relative value units (RVUs) within 365 days of index imaging. The number of subsequent opioid prescriptions written by a primary care clinician was a secondary outcome, and prespecified subgroup analyses examined results by imaging modality. Results: We enrolled 250 401 participants (of whom 238 886 [95.4%] met eligibility for this analysis, with 137 373 [57.5%] women and 105 497 [44.2%] aged >60 years) from 3278 primary care clinicians. A total of 117 455 patients (49.2%) were randomized to the control group, and 121 431 patients (50.8%) were randomized to the intervention group. There was no significant difference in cumulative spine-related RVUs comparing intervention and control conditions through 365 days. The adjusted median (interquartile range) RVU for the control group was 3.56 (2.71-5.12) compared with 3.53 (2.68-5.08) for the intervention group (difference, -0.7%; 95% CI, -2.9% to 1.5%; P = .54). Rates of subsequent RVUs did not differ between groups by specific clinical findings in the report but did differ by type of index imaging (eg, computed tomography: difference, -29.3%; 95% CI, -42.1% to -13.5%; magnetic resonance imaging: difference, -3.4%; 95% CI, -8.3% to 1.8%). We observed a small but significant decrease in the likelihood of opioid prescribing from a study clinician within 1 year of the intervention (odds ratio, 0.95; 95% CI, 0.91 to 1.00; P = .04). Conclusions and Relevance: In this study, inserting benchmark prevalence information in lumbar spine imaging reports did not decrease subsequent spine-related RVUs but did reduce subsequent opioid prescriptions. The intervention text is simple, inexpensive, and easily implemented. Trial Registration: ClinicalTrials.gov Identifier: NCT02015455.

Identifying Multisite Chronic Pain with Electronic Health Records Data.

BACKGROUND: Multisite chronic pain (MSCP) is associated with increased chronic pain impact, but methods for identifying MSCP for epidemiological research have not been evaluated. OBJECTIVE: We assessed the validity of identifying MSCP using electronic health care data compared with survey questionnaires. METHODS: Stratified random samples of adults served by Kaiser Permanente Northwest and Washington (N = 2,059) were drawn for a survey, oversampling persons with frequent use of health care for pain. MSCP and single-site chronic pain were identified by two methods, with electronic health care data and with self-report of common chronic pain conditions by survey questionnaire. Analyses were weighted to adjust for stratified sampling. RESULTS: MSCP was somewhat less common when ascertained by electronic health records (14.7% weighted prevalence) than by survey questionnaire (25.9% weighted prevalence). Agreement of the two MSCP classifications was low (kappa agreement statistic of 0.21). Ascertainment of MSCP with electronic health records was 30.9% sensitive, 91.0% specific, and had a positive predictive value of 54.5% relative to MSCP identified by self-report as the standard. After adjusting for age and gender, patients with MSCP identified by either electronic health records or self-report showed higher levels of pain-related disability, pain severity, depressive symptoms, and long-term opioid use than persons with single-site chronic pain identified by the same method. CONCLUSIONS: Identification of MSCP with electronic health care data was insufficiently accurate to be used as a surrogate or screener for MSCP identified by self-report, but both methods identified persons with heightened chronic pain impact.

Outcomes of prescription opioid dose escalation for chronic pain: results from a prospective cohort study.

The use of long-term opioid therapy for chronic pain remains common, yet data on long-term outcomes, especially after dose escalation, are sparse. This study examined potential benefits and harms associated with prescription opioid dose escalation. Participants from 2 institutions were enrolled in a 2-year prospective cohort study. All participants (n = 517) had a musculoskeletal pain diagnosis and were receiving a stable dose of long-term opioid therapy at baseline. Participants completed self-report measures of pain, disability, depression, and potential adverse effects at baseline and every 6 months for 2 years. We reviewed electronic health record data weekly to identify episodes of prescription opioid dose escalation; participants who had increases in their dose were seen for additional research visits within 1 month of dose escalation. Over 2 years, 19.5% of participants had prescription opioid dose increases. After controlling for covariates, there were no significant changes on any variable after dose escalation. Of those with a dose increase, 3% experienced a clinically meaningful improvement in pain after dose escalation. Participants in the entire sample had small improvements in pain intensity, depressive symptoms, medication-related side effects, and lower risk for prescription opioid misuse during the study period. Sexual functioning worsened over time. There were no significant changes in the full sample on pain disability, sleep functioning, or experiencing a fall. In summary, patients prescribed stable doses of long-term opioid therapy may demonstrate small changes in key pain-related outcomes over time, but prescription opioid dose escalation status is unrelated to clinical outcomes.

Graded chronic pain scale revised: mild, bothersome, and high-impact chronic pain.

Drawing on advances in chronic pain metrics, a simplified Graded Chronic Pain Scale-Revised was developed to differentiate mild, bothersome, and high-impact chronic pain. Graded Chronic Pain Scale-Revised was validated among adult enrollees of 2 health plans (N = 2021). In this population, the prevalence of chronic pain (pain present most or every day, prior 3 months) was 40.5%: 15.4% with mild chronic pain (lower pain intensity and interference); 10.1% bothersome chronic pain (moderate to severe pain intensity with lower interference with life activities); and 15.0% high-impact chronic pain (sustained pain-related activity limitations). Persons with mild chronic pain vs those without chronic pain showed small differences on 10 health status indicators (unfavorable health perceptions, activity limitations, and receiving long-term opioid therapy), with nonsignificant differences for 7 of 10 indicators. Persons with bothersome vs mild chronic pain differed significantly on 6 of 10 indicators (eg, negative pain coping beliefs, psychological distress, unfavorable health perceptions, and pain-related interference with overall activities). Persons with high-impact chronic pain differed significantly from those with mild chronic pain on all 10 indicators. Persons with high-impact chronic pain, relative to those with bothersome chronic pain, were more likely to have substantial activity limitations (significant differences for 4 of 5 disability indicators) and more often received long-term opioid therapy. Graded Chronic Pain Scale-Revised strongly predicted 5 activity-limitation indicators with area under receiver operating characteristic curve coefficients of 0.76 to 0.89. We conclude that the 5-item Graded Chronic Pain Scale-Revised and its scoring rules provide a brief, simple, and valid method for assessing chronic pain.

Time to Align Coverage with Evidence for Treatment of Back Pain.

Despite improved knowledge about the benefits and harms of treatments for chronic back pain in the past several decades, there is a large and consequential mismatch between treatments found safe and effective and those routinely covered by health insurance. As a result, care for back pain has, if anything, deteriorated in recent decades-expenses are higher, harms are greater, and use of ineffective treatments is more common. Deficiencies in health care delivery processes and payment models are centrally involved in the failure to improve care for back pain. A key step for accelerating progress is changing insurance coverage policies to facilitate use of the safest and most helpful approaches while discouraging riskier and less effective treatments. Relatively simple changes in reimbursement policies may minimize harm and improve quality of life for many patients with chronic back and similar pain syndromes. Such changes might also reduce health care expenditures because the costs of treatments currently covered by insurance and their associated harms may well outweigh the costs of the relatively safe and effective treatments recommended by current guidelines but poorly covered by insurance. There is no justification for continuing the status quo-patients and clinicians deserve better.

Development and Assessment of a Crosswalk Between ICD-9-CM and ICD-10-CM to Identify Patients with Common Pain Conditions.

Effective management of patients with pain requires accurate information about the prevalence, outcomes, and co-occurrence of common pain conditions. However, the transition from ICD-9-CM to ICD-10-CM diagnostic coding in 2015 left researchers without methods for comparing the prevalence of pain conditions before and after the transition. In this study, we developed and assessed a diagnostic framework to serve as a crosswalk between ICD-9-CM and ICD-10-CM diagnosis codes for common pain-related health conditions. We refined existing ICD-9-CM definitions for diagnostic clusters of common pain conditions consistent with the US National Pain Strategy and developed corresponding ICD-10-CM definitions. We then assessed the stability of prevalence estimates and associated patient socio-demographic features of each diagnostic cluster during 1-year periods before and after the transition to ICD-10-CM in 3 US health care systems using electronic health records data for in-person encounters. Prevalence estimates and socio-demographic characteristics were similar before and after the transition. The Pain Condition ICD-9-CM to ICD-10-CM Crosswalk includes a full spectrum of common pain conditions to enable prevalence estimates of multiple and chronic overlapping pain conditions. This allows the tool to serve as a foundation for a broad array of pain-related health services research utilizing electronic databases. PERSPECTIVE: This article details the development and assessment of the Pain Condition ICD-9-CM to ICD-10-CM Crosswalk, a diagnostic framework for assessing pain condition prevalence across the ICD-9-CM to ICD-10-CM transition. This framework can serve as a standardized tool for research on pain conditions, including health services and epidemiologic research.