Mechanical behaviour of reconstructed defected skull with custom PEEK implant and Titanium fixture plates under dynamic loading conditions using FEM.

Skull reconstruction using cranial implants is often required for repairing skull defects caused due to trauma, diseases, or malignancy to protect intracranial structures. For relieving Intracranial Pressure (ICP) surgeons restore cranial defects either using natural bones or fabricated custom cranial implants. With the increase in Traumatic Brain Injuries (TBI) and challenges faced by TBI patients to regain normalcy, it is imperative to analyse the mechanical behaviour of skull-implant assemblies under some Head Injury Criteria (HIC). Medical grade materials including Titanium Alloys (Ti-6Al-4V) and Polyether-ether-ketone (PEEK) are used by fabricating Patient-Specific Implants (PSI) manufactured using 3D imaging, modelling and printing techniques. 3D technologies are preferred over conventional manufacturing methods, as they enable fabrication of custom shapes, sizes and properties for these PSI. For an effective attachment of PSI with a defective skull, a stable joint and plate arrangement as fixture plates is necessary at their interface. These fixtures can have variable numbers, design shapes, materials and location arrangements. This paper presents the Finite Element Method/Analysis (FEM/FEA) study of PSI attached to a defected skull for reconstruction, with linear shaped fixture configuration, when subjected to an external dynamic loading at 5 m/s, strain rate of 10s-1 to 243s-1 and ICP of 15mm Hg from three sides of the skull faces. Three different materials as Neoprene (soft), Concrete (medium rigid) and E-Glass (highly rigid) have been used, in the form of a rectangular thin cuboidal wall structure, at an angle of 45° with the skull face. Four linear shaped fixture plates which were simplest to design, were used to attach the PSI-skull assembly, to ensure that weight of the PSI-fixation assembly on the patient remains minimal, overall assembly has symmetrical fixations and efforts required by a surgeon for fitment of these plates remain minimal. Placement of these fixture plates has been optimized to encompass the complete PSI-skull interface section, due to which the stresses within all the assembly components (PSI, fixture plate and skull) reduced by nearly 2.5 times than the initial design and remained within yielding limits, thereby, averting any failure under heavy external dynamic loading.

Development of low-cost non-contact structural health monitoring system for rotating machinery.

Condition monitoring systems are increasingly being employed in industrial applications to improve the availability of equipment to increase the overall equipment efficiency. Condition monitoring of gearboxes, a key element of rotating machines, ensures to continuously reduce and eliminate costs, unscheduled downtime and unexpected breakdowns. This study demonstrates a low-cost microcontroller-based non-contact data acquisition system for condition monitoring of rotating machinery. Experimental validation of the proposed system was carried out by performing examination tests on a gearbox test rig. A user-friendly graphical user interface was also developed which facilitates users to perform signal processing in both real-time and offline mode. The proposed system can perform most of the functions available in complex, stand-alone vibration analysers. The use of a general-purpose PC and standard programing language makes the system simple, economical and adaptable to a variety of problems. The tests show the developed system can perform properly as proposed.

EAACI Guidelines on Allergen Immunotherapy: Allergic rhinoconjunctivitis.

Allergic rhinoconjunctivitis (AR) is an allergic disorder of the nose and eyes affecting about a fifth of the general population. Symptoms of AR can be controlled with allergen avoidance measures and pharmacotherapy. However, many patients continue to have ongoing symptoms and an impaired quality of life; pharmacotherapy may also induce some side-effects. Allergen immunotherapy (AIT) represents the only currently available treatment that targets the underlying pathophysiology, and it may have a disease-modifying effect. Either the subcutaneous (SCIT) or sublingual (SLIT) routes may be used. This Guideline has been prepared by the European Academy of Allergy and Clinical Immunology's (EAACI) Taskforce on AIT for AR and is part of the EAACI presidential project "EAACI Guidelines on Allergen Immunotherapy." It aims to provide evidence-based clinical recommendations and has been informed by a formal systematic review and meta-analysis. Its generation has followed the Appraisal of Guidelines for Research and Evaluation (AGREE II) approach. The process included involvement of the full range of stakeholders. In general, broad evidence for the clinical efficacy of AIT for AR exists but a product-specific evaluation of evidence is recommended. In general, SCIT and SLIT are recommended for both seasonal and perennial AR for its short-term benefit. The strongest evidence for long-term benefit is documented for grass AIT (especially for the grass tablets) where long-term benefit is seen. To achieve long-term efficacy, it is recommended that a minimum of 3 years of therapy is used. Many gaps in the evidence base exist, particularly around long-term benefit and use in children.

EAACI guidelines on allergen immunotherapy: Hymenoptera venom allergy.

Hymenoptera venom allergy is a potentially life-threatening allergic reaction following a honeybee, vespid, or ant sting. Systemic-allergic sting reactions have been reported in up to 7.5% of adults and up to 3.4% of children. They can be mild and restricted to the skin or moderate to severe with a risk of life-threatening anaphylaxis. Patients should carry an emergency kit containing an adrenaline autoinjector, H1 -antihistamines, and corticosteroids depending on the severity of their previous sting reaction(s). The only treatment to prevent further systemic sting reactions is venom immunotherapy. This guideline has been prepared by the European Academy of Allergy and Clinical Immunology's (EAACI) Taskforce on Venom Immunotherapy as part of the EAACI Guidelines on Allergen Immunotherapy initiative. The guideline aims to provide evidence-based recommendations for the use of venom immunotherapy, has been informed by a formal systematic review and meta-analysis and produced using the Appraisal of Guidelines for Research and Evaluation (AGREE II) approach. The process included representation from a range of stakeholders. Venom immunotherapy is indicated in venom-allergic children and adults to prevent further moderate-to-severe systemic sting reactions. Venom immunotherapy is also recommended in adults with only generalized skin reactions as it results in significant improvements in quality of life compared to carrying an adrenaline autoinjector. This guideline aims to give practical advice on performing venom immunotherapy. Key sections cover general considerations before initiating venom immunotherapy, evidence-based clinical recommendations, risk factors for adverse events and for relapse of systemic sting reaction, and a summary of gaps in the evidence.

Health economic analysis of allergen immunotherapy for the management of allergic rhinitis, asthma, food allergy and venom allergy: A systematic overview.

BACKGROUND: The European Academy of Allergy and Clinical Immunology (EAACI) is developing guidelines for allergen immunotherapy (AIT) for the management of allergic rhinitis, allergic asthma, IgE-mediated food allergy and venom allergy. To inform the development of clinical recommendations, we undertook systematic reviews to critically assess evidence on the effectiveness, safety and cost-effectiveness of AIT for these conditions. This study focusses on synthesizing data and gaps in the evidence on the cost-effectiveness of AIT for these conditions. METHODS: We produced summaries of evidence in each domain, and then, synthesized findings on health economic data identified from four recent systematic reviews on allergic rhinitis, asthma, food allergy and venom allergy, respectively. The quality of these studies was independently assessed using the Critical Appraisal Skills Programme tool for health economic evaluations. RESULTS: Twenty-three studies satisfied our inclusion criteria. Of these, 19 studies investigated the cost-effectiveness of AIT in allergic rhinitis, of which seven were based on data from randomized controlled trials with economic evaluations conducted from a health system perspective. This body of evidence suggested that sublingual immunotherapy (SLIT) and subcutaneous immunotherapy (SCIT) would be considered cost-effective using the (English) National Institute for Health and Clinical Excellence (NICE) cost-effectiveness threshold of £20 000/quality-adjusted life year (QALY). However, the quality of the studies and the general lack of attention to characterizing uncertainty and handling missing data should be taken into account when interpreting these results. For asthma, there were three eligible studies, all of which had significant methodological limitations; these suggested that SLIT, when used in patients with both asthma and allergic rhinitis, may be cost-effective with an incremental cost-effectiveness ratio (ICER) of £10 726 per QALY. We found one economic modelling study for venom allergy which, despite being based largely on expert opinion and plausible assumptions, suggested that AIT for bee and wasp venom allergy is only likely to be cost-effective for very high-risk groups who may be exposed to multiple exposures to venom/year (eg bee keepers). We found no eligible studies investigating the cost-effectiveness of AIT for food allergy. CONCLUSIONS: Overall, the evidence to support the cost-effectiveness of AIT is limited and of low methodological quality, but suggests that AIT may be cost-effective for people with allergic rhinitis with or without asthma and in high-risk subgroups for venom allergy. We were unable to draw any conclusions on the cost-effectiveness of AIT for food allergy.

EAACI Guidelines on allergen immunotherapy: IgE-mediated food allergy.

Food allergy can result in considerable morbidity, impairment of quality of life, and healthcare expenditure. There is therefore interest in novel strategies for its treatment, particularly food allergen immunotherapy (FA-AIT) through the oral (OIT), sublingual (SLIT), or epicutaneous (EPIT) routes. This Guideline, prepared by the European Academy of Allergy and Clinical Immunology (EAACI) Task Force on Allergen Immunotherapy for IgE-mediated Food Allergy, aims to provide evidence-based recommendations for active treatment of IgE-mediated food allergy with FA-AIT. Immunotherapy relies on the delivery of gradually increasing doses of specific allergen to increase the threshold of reaction while on therapy (also known as desensitization) and ultimately to achieve post-discontinuation effectiveness (also known as tolerance or sustained unresponsiveness). Oral FA-AIT has most frequently been assessed: here, the allergen is either immediately swallowed (OIT) or held under the tongue for a period of time (SLIT). Overall, trials have found substantial benefit for patients undergoing either OIT or SLIT with respect to efficacy during treatment, particularly for cow's milk, hen's egg, and peanut allergies. A benefit post-discontinuation is also suggested, but not confirmed. Adverse events during FA-AIT have been frequently reported, but few subjects discontinue FA-AIT as a result of these. Taking into account the current evidence, FA-AIT should only be performed in research centers or in clinical centers with an extensive experience in FA-AIT. Patients and their families should be provided with information about the use of FA-AIT for IgE-mediated food allergy to allow them to make an informed decision about the therapy.

Non-contact incipient fault diagnosis method of fixed-axis gearbox based on CEEMDAN.

Gearbox plays most essential role in the modern machinery for transmitting the required torque along with motion and contributes to wide range of applications. Any failure in gearbox components affects the productivity and efficiency of the system. Most machine breakdowns related to gears are a result of improper operating conditions and loading, hence lead to failure of the whole mechanism. Ensemble Empirical Mode Decomposition (EEMD) comprises advancement and valuable addition in Empirical Mode Decomposition (EMD) and has been widely used in fault detection of rotating machines. However, intrinsic mode functions (IMFs) produced by EEMD often carry the residual noise. Also, the produced IMFs are different in number due to addition of white Gaussian noise, which leads to final averaging problem. To alleviate these drawbacks, Complete Ensemble Empirical Mode Decomposition with Adaptive Noise (CEEMDAN) was previously presented. This paper describes and presents the implementation of CEEMDAN for fault diagnosis of simulated local defects using sound signals in a fixed-axis gearbox. Statistical parameters are extracted from decomposed sound signals for different simulated faults. Results show the effectiveness of CEEMDAN over EEMD in order to obtain more accurate IMFs and fault severity.

Allergen immunotherapy for allergic asthma: A systematic review and meta-analysis.

BACKGROUND: To inform the development of the European Academy of Allergy and Clinical Immunology's (EAACI) Guidelines on Allergen Immunotherapy (AIT) for allergic asthma, we assessed the evidence on the effectiveness, cost-effectiveness and safety of AIT. METHODS: We performed a systematic review, which involved searching nine databases. Studies were screened against predefined eligibility criteria and critically appraised using established instruments. Data were synthesized using random-effects meta-analyses. RESULTS: 98 studies satisfied the inclusion criteria. Short-term symptom scores were reduced with a standardized mean difference (SMD) of -1.11 (95% CI -1.66, -0.56). This was robust to a prespecified sensitivity analyses, but there was evidence suggestive of publication bias. Short-term medication scores were reduced SMD -1.21 (95% CI -1.87, -0.54), again with evidence of potential publication bias. There was no reduction in short-term combined medication and symptom scores SMD 0.17 (95% CI -0.23, 0.58), but one study showed a beneficial long-term effect. For secondary outcomes, subcutaneous immunotherapy (SCIT) improved quality of life and decreased allergen-specific airway hyperreactivity (AHR), but this was not the case for sublingual immunotherapy (SLIT). There were no consistent effects on asthma control, exacerbations, lung function, and nonspecific AHR. AIT resulted in a modest increased risk of adverse events (AEs). Although relatively uncommon, systemic AEs were more frequent with SCIT; however no fatalities were reported. The limited evidence on cost-effectiveness was mainly available for sublingual immunotherapy (SLIT) and this suggested that SLIT is likely to be cost-effective. CONCLUSIONS: AIT can achieve substantial reductions in short-term symptom and medication scores in allergic asthma. It was however associated with a modest increased risk of systemic and local AEs. More data are needed in relation to secondary outcomes, longer-term effectiveness and cost-effectiveness.

Allergen immunotherapy for allergic rhinoconjunctivitis: A systematic review and meta-analysis.

BACKGROUND: The European Academy of Allergy and Clinical Immunology (EAACI) is in the process of developing Guidelines on Allergen Immunotherapy (AIT) for Allergic Rhinoconjunctivitis. To inform the development of clinical recommendations, we undertook a systematic review to assess the effectiveness, cost-effectiveness, and safety of AIT in the management of allergic rhinoconjunctivitis. METHODS: We searched nine international biomedical databases for published, in-progress, and unpublished evidence. Studies were independently screened by two reviewers against predefined eligibility criteria and critically appraised using established instruments. Our primary outcomes of interest were symptom, medication, and combined symptom and medication scores. Secondary outcomes of interest included cost-effectiveness and safety. Data were descriptively summarized and then quantitatively synthesized using random-effects meta-analyses. RESULTS: We identified 5960 studies of which 160 studies satisfied our eligibility criteria. There was a substantial body of evidence demonstrating significant reductions in standardized mean differences (SMD) of symptom (SMD -0.53, 95% CI -0.63, -0.42), medication (SMD -0.37, 95% CI -0.49, -0.26), and combined symptom and medication (SMD -0.49, 95% CI -0.69, -0.30) scores while on treatment that were robust to prespecified sensitivity analyses. There was in comparison a more modest body of evidence on effectiveness post-discontinuation of AIT, suggesting a benefit in relation to symptom scores. CONCLUSIONS: AIT is effective in improving symptom, medication, and combined symptom and medication scores in patients with allergic rhinoconjunctivitis while on treatment, and there is some evidence suggesting that these benefits are maintained in relation to symptom scores after discontinuation of therapy.

Allergen immunotherapy for insect venom allergy: a systematic review and meta-analysis.

BACKGROUND: The European Academy of Allergy and Clinical Immunology (EAACI) is in the process of developing the EAACI Guidelines on Allergen Immunotherapy (AIT) for the management of insect venom allergy. To inform this process, we sought to assess the effectiveness, cost-effectiveness and safety of AIT in the management of insect venom allergy. METHODS: We undertook a systematic review, which involved searching 15 international biomedical databases for published and unpublished evidence. Studies were independently screened and critically appraised using established instruments. Data were descriptively summarized and, where possible, meta-analysed. RESULTS: Our searches identified a total of 16 950 potentially eligible studies; of which, 17 satisfied our inclusion criteria. The available evidence was limited both in volume and in quality, but suggested that venom immunotherapy (VIT) could substantially reduce the risk of subsequent severe systemic sting reactions (OR = 0.08, 95% CI 0.03-0.26); meta-analysis showed that it also improved disease-specific quality of life (risk difference = 1.41, 95% CI 1.04-1.79). Adverse effects were experienced in both the build-up and maintenance phases, but most were mild with no fatalities being reported. The very limited evidence found on modelling cost-effectiveness suggested that VIT was likely to be cost-effective in those at high risk of repeated systemic sting reactions and/or impaired quality of life. CONCLUSIONS: The limited available evidence suggested that VIT is effective in reducing severe subsequent systemic sting reactions and in improving disease-specific quality of life. VIT proved to be safe and no fatalities were recorded in the studies included in this review. The cost-effectiveness of VIT needs to be established.

Allergen immunotherapy for IgE-mediated food allergy: a systematic review and meta-analysis.

BACKGROUND: The European Academy of Allergy and Clinical Immunology (EAACI) is developing Guidelines for Allergen Immunotherapy (AIT) for IgE-mediated Food Allergy. To inform the development of clinical recommendations, we sought to critically assess evidence on the effectiveness, safety and cost-effectiveness of AIT in the management of food allergy. METHODS: We undertook a systematic review and meta-analysis that involved searching nine international electronic databases for randomized controlled trials (RCTs) and nonrandomized studies (NRS). Eligible studies were independently assessed by two reviewers against predefined eligibility criteria. The quality of studies was assessed using the Cochrane Risk of Bias tool for RCTs and the Cochrane ACROBAT-NRS tool for quasi-RCTs. Random-effects meta-analyses were undertaken, with planned subgroup and sensitivity analyses. RESULTS: We identified 1814 potentially relevant papers from which we selected 31 eligible studies, comprising of 25 RCTs and six NRS, studying a total of 1259 patients. Twenty-five trials evaluated oral immunotherapy (OIT), five studies investigated sublingual immunotherapy, and one study evaluated epicutaneous immunotherapy. The majority of these studies were in children. Twenty-seven studies assessed desensitization, and eight studies investigated sustained unresponsiveness postdiscontinuation of AIT. Meta-analyses demonstrated a substantial benefit in terms of desensitization (risk ratio (RR) = 0.16, 95% CI 0.10, 0.26) and suggested, but did not confirm sustained unresponsiveness (RR = 0.29, 95% CI 0.08, 1.13). Only one study reported on disease-specific quality of life (QoL), which reported no comparative results between OIT and control group. Meta-analyses revealed that the risk of experiencing a systemic adverse reaction was higher in those receiving AIT, with a more marked increase in the risk of local adverse reactions. Sensitivity analysis excluding those studies judged to be at high risk of bias demonstrated the robustness of summary estimates of effectiveness and safety of AIT for food allergy. None of the studies reported data on health economic analyses. CONCLUSIONS: AIT may be effective in raising the threshold of reactivity to a range of foods in children with IgE-mediated food allergy whilst receiving (i.e. desensitization) and post-discontinuation of AIT. It is, however, associated with a modest increased risk in serious systemic adverse reactions and a substantial increase in minor local adverse reactions. More data are needed in relation to adults, long term effects, the impact on QoL and the cost-effectiveness of AIT.

Decoy receptors block TRAIL sensitivity at a supracellular level: the role of stromal cells in controlling tumour TRAIL sensitivity.

Tumour necrosis factor-related apoptosis-inducing ligand (TRAIL) is a death ligand cytokine known for its cytotoxic activity against malignantly transformed cells. TRAIL induces cell death through binding to death receptors DR4 and DR5. The inhibitory decoy receptors (DcR1 and DcR2) co-expressed with death receptor 4 (DR4)/DR5 on the same cell can block the transmission of the apoptotic signal. Here, we show that DcRs also regulate TRAIL sensitivity at a supracellular level and thus represent a mechanism by which the microenvironment can diminish tumour TRAIL sensitivity. Mathematical modelling and layered or spheroid stroma-extracellular matrix-tumour cultures were used to model the tumour microenvironment. By engineering TRAIL to escape binding by DcRs, we found that DcRs do not only act in a cell-autonomous or cis-regulatory manner, but also exert trans-cellular regulation originating from stromal cells and affect tumour cells, highlighting the potent inhibitory effect of DcRs in the tumour tissue and the necessity of selective targeting of the two death-inducing TRAIL receptors to maximise efficacy.

Anaphylaxis: guidelines from the European Academy of Allergy and Clinical Immunology.

Anaphylaxis is a clinical emergency, and all healthcare professionals should be familiar with its recognition and acute and ongoing management. These guidelines have been prepared by the European Academy of Allergy and Clinical Immunology (EAACI) Taskforce on Anaphylaxis. They aim to provide evidence-based recommendations for the recognition, risk factor assessment, and the management of patients who are at risk of, are experiencing, or have experienced anaphylaxis. While the primary audience is allergists, these guidelines are also relevant to all other healthcare professionals. The development of these guidelines has been underpinned by two systematic reviews of the literature, both on the epidemiology and on clinical management of anaphylaxis. Anaphylaxis is a potentially life-threatening condition whose clinical diagnosis is based on recognition of a constellation of presenting features. First-line treatment for anaphylaxis is intramuscular adrenaline. Useful second-line interventions may include removing the trigger where possible, calling for help, correct positioning of the patient, high-flow oxygen, intravenous fluids, inhaled short-acting bronchodilators, and nebulized adrenaline. Discharge arrangements should involve an assessment of the risk of further reactions, a management plan with an anaphylaxis emergency action plan, and, where appropriate, prescribing an adrenaline auto-injector. If an adrenaline auto-injector is prescribed, education on when and how to use the device should be provided. Specialist follow-up is essential to investigate possible triggers, to perform a comprehensive risk assessment, and to prevent future episodes by developing personalized risk reduction strategies including, where possible, commencing allergen immunotherapy. Training for the patient and all caregivers is essential. There are still many gaps in the evidence base for anaphylaxis.

Management of anaphylaxis: a systematic review.

To establish the effectiveness of interventions for the acute and long-term management of anaphylaxis, seven databases were searched for systematic reviews, randomized controlled trials, quasi-randomized controlled trials, controlled clinical trials, controlled before-after studies and interrupted time series and - only in relation to adrenaline - case series investigating the effectiveness of interventions in managing anaphylaxis. Fifty-five studies satisfied the inclusion criteria. We found no robust studies investigating the effectiveness of adrenaline (epinephrine), H1-antihistamines, systemic glucocorticosteroids or methylxanthines to manage anaphylaxis. There was evidence regarding the optimum route, site and dose of administration of adrenaline from trials studying people with a history of anaphylaxis. This suggested that administration of intramuscular adrenaline into the middle of vastus lateralis muscle is the optimum treatment. Furthermore, fatality register studies have suggested that a failure or delay in administration of adrenaline may increase the risk of death. The main long-term management interventions studied were anaphylaxis management plans and allergen-specific immunotherapy. Management plans may reduce the risk of further reactions, but these studies were at high risk of bias. Venom immunotherapy may reduce the incidence of systemic reactions in those with a history of venom-triggered anaphylaxis.

Pneumococcal vaccine for asthma.

BACKGROUND: Infection with Streptococcus pneumoniae is an important cause of pneumonia and other serious illnesses, particularly amongst those with certain high-risk medical conditions such as asthma. Although pneumococcal vaccine is routinely advocated for people with asthma, there is uncertainty about the evidence base that underpins this recommendation. OBJECTIVES: To determine the efficacy of pneumococcal vaccine in reducing mortality or morbidity from pneumococcal disease in asthmatics. SEARCH STRATEGY: Randomised controlled trials were identified using the Cochrane Airways Group's register derived from MEDLINE, EMBASE, and CINAHL electronic databases and hand searched respiratory journals and meeting abstracts. SELECTION CRITERIA: Randomised controlled trials, with or without blinding, in which pneumococcal vaccine has been compared with placebo or no treatment in people with clinician diagnosed asthma. DATA COLLECTION AND ANALYSIS: Two reviewers independently reviewed all abstracts and full papers of all articles of potential relevance were retrieved. Methodological quality was rated using the Cochrane approach and the Jadad rating scale. Data extraction was performed by one reviewer and checked independently by a second. We planned to perform quantitative analyses of outcomes on an intention-to-treat basis, where possible. MAIN RESULTS: Of the three papers retrieved, only one satisfied the inclusion criteria and the methodological quality of this study was low (unblinded and inadequate allocation concealment). None of the data could be aggregated in a meta-analysis. Comparisons in a sub-set of 30 asthmatic children prone to recurrent episodes of otitis media, showed that pneumococcal vaccination decreased the incidence of acute asthma exacerbations from 10 to 7 (per child per year). A further search conducted in September 2001 did not yield any further studies. REVIEWER'S CONCLUSIONS: This review found very limited evidence to support the routine use of pneumococcal vaccine in people with asthma. A randomised trial of vaccine efficacy in children and adults with asthma is needed.

Pneumococcal vaccine for asthma.

BACKGROUND: Infection with Streptococcus pneumoniae is an important cause of pneumonia and other serious illnesses, particularly amongst those with certain high-risk medical conditions such as asthma. Although pneumococcal vaccine is routinely advocated for people with asthma, there is uncertainty about the evidence base that underpins this recommendation. OBJECTIVES: To determine the efficacy of pneumococcal vaccine in reducing mortality or morbidity from pneumococcal disease in asthmatics. SEARCH STRATEGY: Randomised controlled trials were identified using the Cochrane Airways Group's register derived from MEDLINE, EMBASE, and CINAHL electronic databases and hand searched respiratory journals and meeting abstracts. SELECTION CRITERIA: Randomised controlled trials, with or without blinding, in which pneumococcal vaccine has been compared with placebo or no treatment in people with clinician diagnosed asthma. DATA COLLECTION AND ANALYSIS: Two reviewers independently reviewed all abstracts and full papers of all articles of potential relevance were retrieved. Methodological quality was rated using the Cochrane approach and the Jadad rating scale. Data extraction was performed by one reviewer and checked independently by a second. We planned to perform quantitative analyses of outcomes on an intention-to-treat basis, where possible. MAIN RESULTS: Of the three papers retrieved, only one satisfied the inclusion criteria and the methodological quality of this study was low (unblinded and inadequate allocation concealment). None of the data could be aggregated in a meta-analysis. Comparisons in a sub-set of 30 asthmatic children prone to recurrent episodes of otitis media, showed that pneumococcal vaccination decreased the incidence of acute asthma exacerbations from 10 to 7 (per child per year). REVIEWER'S CONCLUSIONS: This review found very limited evidence to support the routine use of pneumococcal vaccine in people with asthma. A randomised trial of vaccine efficacy in children and adults with asthma is needed.