Exploring Headaches in Pediatric Behçet Disease: Prevalence, Clinical Impact, and Management.

Behçet's Disease (BD), also recognized as Behçet Syndrome, manifests uniquely in pediatric populations as Pediatric Behçet's Disease (PBD), characterized by multisystemic inflammatory symptoms including recurrent oral and genital aphthae, and diverse ocular, vascular, and neurological involvements. This review elucidates the prevalence, burden, and management strategies of headaches in children with PBD, focusing on both primary headaches, such as migraine and tension-type headaches, and secondary headaches linked to systemic disease manifestations. It explores the pathophysiological underpinnings specific to PBD-related headaches and discusses the intricate relationship between systemic inflammatory processes and neurological symptoms. By examining the literature from 2004 to 2024, this study highlights the high frequency of headache in PBD patients, underscoring its diagnostic and clinical significance. We aim to provide a detailed understanding of headache management in PBD, emphasizing tailored therapeutic strategies that address the unique challenges faced by this patient population. This review also underscores the importance of comprehensive clinical evaluations to optimize outcomes and mitigate long-term sequelae, proposing that awareness and understanding of headache in PBD can significantly enhance both diagnosis and management.

Novel causative variants in Legius syndrome: SPRED1 Genotype spectrum expansion.

Legius syndrome, commonly referred to as SPRED1-related neurofibromatosis type 1-like syndrome, is a rare autosomal dominant disorder characterized by café-au-lait macules, freckling, lipomas, macrocephaly, and heterogeneous neurodevelopmental manifestations, including a different degree of learning difficulties. Although a partial clinical overlap exists with neurofibromatosis type 1 (NF1), Legius syndrome is distinguished by its genetic etiology and the absence of neurofibromas, indicating an inherent lack of tumor risk. The SPRED1 gene encodes the Sprouty-related protein with an EVH1 domain 1 (SPRED1), a negative regulator of the RAS-MAPK signaling pathway with a crucial role in cellular growth and development. Despite various genetic variants and genomic deletions associated with Legius syndrome, the full genetic spectrum of this condition remains elusive. In this study, we investigated the underlying genetic etiology in a cohort of patients presenting with typical manifestations of Legius syndrome using a custom Next Generation Sequencing (NGS) panel and Multiplex Ligation-Dependent Probe Amplification (MLPA) for NF1 and SPRED1. We identified 12 novel SPRED1 damaging variants segregating with the phenotype in all families. These rare variants affect conserved residues of the protein and are predicted damaging according to in silico tools. No clear genotype-phenotype correlations could be observed in the current cohort and previously reported patients, underscoring the heterogeneous genotype spectrum of this condition. Our findings expand the understanding of SPRED1 variants causing Legius syndrome and underscore the importance of comprehensively characterizing the genetic landscape of this disorder. Despite the absence of clear genotype-phenotype correlations, elucidating the genetic etiology of Legius syndrome is pertinent for facilitating accurate diagnosis, genetic counseling, and therapeutic interventions.

Dermatologic Effects of Selumetinib in Pediatric Patients with Neurofibromatosis Type 1: Clinical Challenges and Therapeutic Management.

Background: Plexiform neurofibromas (pNFs) are benign neoplasms, primarily originating from Schwann cells, posing challenges in patients with type 1 neurofibromatosis (NF1) due to pain, disfigurement, compression of vital structures and potential for malignancy. Selumetinib, a MEK1/2 inhibitor, has shown promising results in treating inoperable pNFs, with clinical trials demonstrating tumor volume reduction and improved patient-reported outcomes. Despite its efficacy, dermatologic toxicities may impact the quality of life and treatment adherence. Evaluating the frequency and spectrum of such effects is crucial for effective management. Methods: In a four-year retrospective and prospective study, pediatric NF1 patients with symptomatic, inoperable plexiform neurofibromas (pNFs) were treated with selumetinib. Eligibility criteria included significant morbidity, pNF size exceeding 3 cm or surgical inoperability, and performance status >70%. Hematological, liver, lung and cardiac assessments established baseline health. Selumetinib, orally administered at 25 mg/m2 twice, was administered for two years unless a response warranting extension occurred. Cutaneous AEs were documented and graded by severity according to CTCAE v5.0, with evaluations every three to six months. The impact on symptoms and pNF size was systematically recorded, and biopsies characterized histopathological features in those patients requiring surgery. Results: Twenty patients were enrolled, with an average age at therapy initiation of 11.6 years. Cutaneous side effects were common, with all patients experiencing at least one and a median of two per patient. Xerosis, paronychia and acneiform rash were prevalent. Notably, pre-pubertal individuals were more susceptible to xerosis. Acneiform rash had a higher incidence in older patients and those with skin phototypes II and III. Successful management involved tailored approaches, such as clindamycin for acneiform rash and topical agents for paronychia. Hair abnormalities, including color changes and thinning, occurred, with female patients at higher risk for the latter. Paronychia presented challenges, necessitating various interventions, including surgical approaches. AEs led to treatment suspension in 20% of patients, with tumor rebound observed in 75%. Conclusions: According to our experience, successful management of selumetinib-induced cutaneous AEs requires tailored strategies including surgery. AEs might indirectly determine pNF regrowth due to therapy suspension. We thus emphasize the pivotal role of addressing cutaneous reactions for effective selumetinib management in pediatric patients.

Surgical revascularization as a procedure to prevent neurological complications in children with moyamoya syndrome associated with neurofibromatosis I: a single institution case series.

BACKGROUND: The optimal timing and surgical approach for surgical revascularization in patients with moyamoya syndrome (MMS) associated with neurofibromatosis type I (NF1) remain so far elusive. We aimed to compare the long-term clinical, radiological, and cognitive effects of different revascularization procedures in a pediatric cohort of NF1-associated MMS. METHODS: We reviewed the clinical, radiological, and surgical data of 26 patients with NF1-associated MMS diagnosed at our institution between 2012 and 2022, at the clinical onset and last follow-up. RESULTS: Indirect bypasses were performed in 12/26 patients (57.1%), while combined direct and indirect procedures in 9/26 subjects (42.9%); 5 patients did not undergo surgery. Through logistic regression analysis, pathological Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Children (WISC) at onset was found to be associated with symptom improvement at 1-year follow up (p = 0.006). No significant differences were found in long-term neurocognitive outcome and stroke rate in patients receiving combined or indirect bypass (p > 0.05). CONCLUSIONS: Currently, whether combined or indirect bypass should be considered the treatment of choice in pediatric patients with NF1-associated MMS remains unclear, as well as the optimal time approach. In our series, no significant differences were found in long-term neurocognitive outcome and stroke rate between patients treated with either of these two approaches. Clinical evidence supports the crucial role of early diagnosis and surgical revascularization in subjects with MMS-associated NF1, even in case of mildly symptomatic vasculopathy. This allows to achieve a good long-term outcome with improved intellectual function and prevention of stroke and seizure in these patients.

Moyamoya Vasculopathy in Neurofibromatosis Type 1 Pediatric Patients: The Role of Rare Variants of RNF213.

Neurofibromatosis type 1 (NF1) is a neurocutaneous disorder caused by mutations in NF1 gene, coding for neurofibromin 1. NF1 can be associated with Moyamoya disease (MMD), and this association, typical of paediatric patients, is referred to as Moyamoya syndrome (MMS). MMD is a cerebral arteriopathy characterized by the occlusion of intracranial arteries and collateral vessel formation, which increase the risk of ischemic and hemorrhagic events. RNF213 gene mutations have been associated with MMD, so we investigated whether rare variants of RNF213 could act as genetic modifiers of MMS phenotype in a pediatric cohort of 20 MMS children, 25 children affected by isolated MMD and 47 affected only by isolated NF1. By next-generation re-sequencing (NGS) of patients' DNA and gene burden tests, we found that RNF213 seems to play a role only for MMD occurrence, while it does not appear to be involved in the increased risk of Moyamoya for MMS patients. We postulated that the loss of neurofibromin 1 can be enough for the excessive proliferation of vascular smooth muscle cells, causing Moyamoya arteriopathy associated with NF1. Further studies will be crucial to support these findings and to elucidate the possible role of other genes, enhancing our knowledge about pathogenesis and treatment of MMS.

Case report: Revascularization failure in NF1-related moyamoya syndrome after selumetinib: A possible pathophysiological correlation?

Neurofibromatosis type 1 (NF1) is a neurocutaneous syndrome caused by pathogenic variants in the NF1 gene, encoding a multidomain inhibitor of Ras activity. Thus, NF1 is considered a RASopathy and drugs targeting the RAS/mitogen-activated protein kinase (MAPK) pathway, such as the MAP kinase (MEK) 1/2 inhibitor Selumetinib, are promising therapeutic options to treat NF1-associated tumors, especially plexiform neurofibromas and optic way gliomas. However, surgical treatment is often required for NF1-related cerebrovascular manifestations, such as moyamoya syndrome (MMS). We report a case of an 8-year-old patient receiving Selumetinib at the dose of 25 mg/m2 orally 2 times a day as a treatment for many plexiform neurofibromas. He suffered from two close strokes and brain MRI revealed a severe cerebral vasculopathy consistent with MMS, with marked stenosis of both the internal carotid arteries. A two-step surgical revascularization procedure was performed, consisting of a direct by-pass with an encephalo-mio-synangiosis (EMS) followed by encephalo-duro-arterio-synangiosis (EDAS). Surprisingly, despite the surgical technical success, follow-up MRI revealed lack of the expected revascularization. Selumetinib is a powerful therapeutic option in the treatment of severe NF1-related tumors. However, our findings suggest that this drug may interfere with cerebral neovascularization in patients with MMS requiring surgical revascularization. This is supported by the crucial role of the Vascular-Endothelial Growth Factor (VEGF), whose signaling pathway involve MAPK, as promoter of the neovascularization. Our observations suggest to adopt an imaging surveillance strategy to prevent unfavorable surgical outcome in patients with NF1-associated MMS receiving Selumetinib, and that priority should be given to surgical revascularization.

Genotype-phenotype correlations and disease mechanisms in PEX13-related Zellweger spectrum disorders.

BACKGROUND: Pathogenic variants in PEX-genes can affect peroxisome assembly and function and cause Zellweger spectrum disorders (ZSDs), characterized by variable phenotypes in terms of disease severity, age of onset and clinical presentations. So far, defects in at least 15 PEX-genes have been implicated in Mendelian diseases, but in some of the ultra-rare ZSD subtypes genotype-phenotype correlations and disease mechanisms remain elusive. METHODS: We report five families carrying biallelic variants in PEX13. The identified variants were initially evaluated by using a combination of computational approaches. Immunofluorescence and complementation studies on patient-derived fibroblasts were performed in two patients to investigate the cellular impact of the identified mutations. RESULTS: Three out of five families carried a recurrent p.Arg294Trp non-synonymous variant. Individuals affected with PEX13-related ZSD presented heterogeneous clinical features, including hypotonia, developmental regression, hearing/vision impairment, progressive spasticity and brain leukodystrophy. Computational predictions highlighted the involvement of the Arg294 residue in PEX13 homodimerization, and the analysis of blind docking predicted that the p.Arg294Trp variant alters the formation of dimers, impairing the stability of the PEX13/PEX14 translocation module. Studies on muscle tissues and patient-derived fibroblasts revealed biochemical alterations of mitochondrial function and identified mislocalized mitochondria and a reduced number of peroxisomes with abnormal PEX13 concentration. CONCLUSIONS: This study expands the phenotypic and mutational spectrum of PEX13-related ZSDs and also highlight a variety of disease mechanisms contributing to PEX13-related clinical phenotypes, including the emerging contribution of secondary mitochondrial dysfunction to the pathophysiology of ZSDs.

Genotype-Phenotype Correlations in Neurofibromatosis Type 1: A Single-Center Cohort Study.

Neurofibromatosis type 1 (NF1) is a proteiform genetic condition caused by pathogenic variants in NF1 and characterized by a heterogeneous phenotypic presentation. Relevant genotype-phenotype correlations have recently emerged, but only few pertinent studies are available. We retrospectively reviewed clinical, instrumental, and genetic data from a cohort of 583 individuals meeting at least 1 diagnostic National Institutes of Health (NIH) criterion for NF1. Of these, 365 subjects fulfilled ≥2 NIH criteria, including 235 pediatric patients. Genetic testing was performed through cDNA-based sequencing, Next Generation Sequencing (NGS), and Multiplex Ligation-dependent Probe Amplification (MLPA). Uni- and multivariate statistical analysis was used to investigate genotype-phenotype correlations. Among patients fulfilling ≥ 2 NIH criteria, causative single nucleotide variants (SNVs) and copy number variations (CNVs) were detected in 267/365 (73.2%) and 20/365 (5.5%) cases. Missense variants negatively correlated with neurofibromas (p = 0.005). Skeletal abnormalities were associated with whole gene deletions (p = 0.05) and frameshift variants (p = 0.006). The c.3721C>T; p.(R1241*) variant positively correlated with structural brain alterations (p = 0.031), whereas Lisch nodules (p = 0.05) and endocrinological disorders (p = 0.043) were associated with the c.6855C>A; p.(Y2285*) variant. We identified novel NF1 genotype-phenotype correlations and provided an overview of known associations, supporting their potential relevance in the implementation of patient management.

Pediatric Diffuse Midline Gliomas H3 K27M-Mutant and Non-Histone Mutant Midline High-Grade Gliomas in Neurofibromatosis Type 1 in Comparison With Non-Syndromic Children: A Single-Center Pilot Study.

Background: Pediatric neurofibromatosis type 1 (NF1) patients rarely develop aggressive central nervous system tumors. Among high-grade gliomas (HGGs), histone mutant diffuse midline gliomas (DMGs H3 K27M-mutant) have exceptionally been reported. The aim of this retrospectives single-center study was to compare the clinical behavior of DMGs H3 K27M-mutant and non-histone mutant midline HGGs in NF1 vs. non-syndromic children and to report imaging features of NF1 HGGs. Method: We conducted a retrospective review of cerebral DMGs H3 K27M-mutant or non-histone mutant HGGs in 18 patients with or without NF1 followed at our institution between 2010 and 2018. Differences in outcomes, notably progression-free survival (PFS) and overall survival (OS), were evaluated. Results: Two patients were identified with genetically confirmed diagnosis of NF1 and cerebral HGGs (one DMG H3 K27M-mutant and one histone wild type). Both subjects presented with midline mass lesions with imaging features of aggressive biological activity on advanced MRI or amino-acid PET. During the same time period, 16 non-NF1 patients (11 subjects with DMGs H3 K27M-mutant and 5 with non-histone mutant midline HGGs) were treated at our institution. The two patients with NF1 and HGGs presented a PFS of 3 months and an OS of 5 and 7 months. Median PFS and OS of children without NF1 were respectively 6 and 10 months in DMGs H3 K27M-mutant, and 6 and 11 months in H3 K27M wild-type tumors. Seventy-five percent of subjects with non-NF1 HGGs presented a PFS >4 months compared to 0% in NF1 patients. The 8-month OS of patients with non-NF1 HGGs was 81% compared to 0% in NF1 patients. Conclusions: Cerebral HGGs arising in midline structures rarely occur in pediatric patients with NF1 and present with extremely poor prognosis, worse than HGGs developing in non-NF1 patients, independent of the presence or absence of H3 K27M mutation. Imaging features of aggressive biological activity on advanced MRI or amino-acid PET imaging suggest prompt neuropathological and molecular investigations.

Clinical and molecular consequences of exon 78 deletion in DMD gene.

We present a 13-year-old patient with persistent increase of serum Creatine Kinase (CK) and myalgia after exertion. Skeletal muscle biopsy showed marked reduction of dystrophin expression leading to genetic analysis of DMD gene by MLPA, which detected a single deletion of exon 78. To the best of our knowledge, DMD exon 78 deletion has never been described in literature and, according to prediction, it should lead to loss of reading frame in the dystrophin gene. To further assess the actual effect of exon 78 deletion, we analysed cDNA from muscle mRNA. This analysis confirmed the absence of 32 bp of exon 78. Exclusion of exon 78 changes the open reading frame of exon 79 and generate a downstream stop codon, producing a dystrophin protein of 3703 amino acids instead of 3685 amino acids. Albeit loss of reading frame usually leads to protein degradation and severe phenotype, in this case, we demonstrated that deletion of DMD exon 78 can be associated with a functional protein able to bind DGC complex and a very mild phenotype. This study adds a novel deletion in DMD gene in human and helps to define the compliance between maintaining/disrupting the reading frame and clinical form of the disease.

Clostridium difficile causing pediatric infections: New findings from a hospital-based study in Italy.

Recent studies support a change of Clostridium difficile infections (CDIs) epidemiology in pediatric patients. Since limited information is available about C. difficile in this population, we investigated the epidemiology of CDI in a large pediatric hospital that acts as reference centre in Italy and analyzed C. difficile isolates to identify the prevalent PCR-ribotypes (RTs), the binary toxin (CDT)-positive strains and the antibiotic susceptibility patterns. The CDI incidence was 6.6 cases/1000 admissions and the majority (92%) of CDI were healthcare-associated (47% occurred in the Hematology-Oncology and in the Gastroenterology units). Most of symptomatic children <3 years with a positive culture for C. difficile were negative for other gastrointestinal pathogens, supporting C. difficile as cause of disease in these patients, including those showing recurrences. Strains RT020 (16%) and RT014 (14%) were identified as the main cause of infection, while RT356/607 and RT018, predominant in Italian adult patients, were absent (RT356/607) or rarely found (RT018) among children. CDT-positive strains represented the 20% of the total number of isolates analyzed. In particular, two emerging types, RT033 and RT442, were recognized as Toxin A-/Toxin B-/CDT+. Resistance to antibiotics characterized almost 50% of the toxigenic isolates analyzed in this study and, in particular, 20% of them were multidrug resistant (MDR). The emergence and circulation of strains with peculiar toxins profiles and/or MDR strongly highlight the necessity of a rapid CDI diagnosis, a careful monitoring of C. difficile in pediatric patients and a more strict control of antibiotics usage in the Italian pediatric hospitals.

Listeria Meningitis in an Immunocompetent Child.

Listeria monocytogenes is a facultative anerobic, gram-positive bacillus that is isolated from the soil, vegetables, and wild or domestic animals. Listeria infection is usually found in the older adults, immunocompromised patients, pregnant women, and newborns, whereas it is rare in healthy infants and children. Listeria monocytogenes may cause meningitis, meningoencephalitis, brain abscess, pyogenic arthritis, osteomyelitis, and liver abscess in children. The course of meningoencephalitis by Listeria is often severe and even fatal. Complications such as acute hydrocephalus, brain abscess, and spine abscess can develop, and the mortality associated with listeriosis is significantly high. We present a case of a previously healthy 7-year-old boy who developed Listeria monocytogenes meningitis.

Epidemiological changes after PCV7 implementation in Italy: perspective for new vaccines.

The emergence of serotypes not included in 7-valent pneumococcal conjugate vaccine (PCV7), so-called "replacement", could erode the great advantage offered by vaccination. The effect of the replacement phenomena is very variable in different Countries and depends on one or more of several factors i.e. serotype before PCV7 implementation, PCV7 coverage, period from PCV implementation, vaccination schedule, antibiotic use, etc. The long-term epidemiological picture in Europe regarding serotype change is limited because of the relatively recent introduction of PCV7 - the majority of European Countries have only experienced PCV implementation since 2006 - and the difficulty in reaching very high vaccination coverage. In May 2003, a large-scale program of vaccination against Streptococcus pneumoniae with PCV7 was started in Liguria achieving coverage higher than 90%. The results of this program anticipate the results likely to be achieved when high coverage has been reached in Europe for a period of several years. The project included the immunogenicity evaluation of the co-administration of PCV7 and exavalent vaccine using the 3-5-11 month schedule, effectiveness evaluation and the active and passive surveillance system of invasive pneumococcal disease (IPD) and non-IPD. Since the beginning of PCV7 implementation, the proportion of PCV7 serotype has declined and in 2009-10 it accounted for about 10% of all Streptocuccus pn responsible for IPD and non-IPD. The new 13-valent pneumococcal conjugate vaccine, available since July 2010, will offer a significant added benefit covering about 90%, 100% of IPD and more than 40% and 60% of non-IPD detected in pre-school and school children, respectively, after PCV7 introduction.

Home mechanical ventilation in children: retrospective survey of a pediatric population.

BACKGROUND: Home care support is beneficial for children needing mechanical ventilation, when clinically stable. METHODS: A retrospective analysis was carried out of the long-term home ventilation management of a pediatric population with chronic respiratory failure composed of 20 ventilator-dependent children categorized according to age, diagnosis and ventilation support. Age groups consisted of 10% under 1 year, 30% between 2 and 5 years, 30% between 6 and 12 years, and 30% older than 12 years. Diagnostic categories included myopathic disorder, n = 5; congenital central hypoventilation syndrome, n = 6; chest wall disorder, n = 5; cystic fibrosis, n = 1; pulmonary hypertension, n = 1; and diaphragmatic paralysis, n = 2. RESULTS: Sixty-five percent were ventilated using non-invasive mode (NIMV): eight with nasal mask, five with full-face mask, and two children in NIMV also used negative pressure mode; 35% were ventilated using tracheostomy, one of them also used a diaphragmatic pacer. Seventy percent needed nocturnal ventilatory support, (20% 12-18 h, 10% full-day). A total of 18 children were included in the home care and follow-up program. Two children died: one because of worsening of his chronic disease and one because of septic shock. CONCLUSION: Although home care ventilation is not yet widely diffused, it represents a valid alternative to long hospitalization for children with stable chronic respiratory failure.

Noninvasive ventilation in a child affected by achondroplasia respiratory difficulty syndrome.

Achondroplasia can result in respiratory difficulty in early infancy, from anatomical abnormalities such as mid-facial hypoplasia and/or adenotonsillar hypertrophy, leading to obstructive apnea, or to pathophysiological changes occurring in nasopharyngeal or glossal muscle tone, related to neurological abnormalities (foramen magnum and/or hypoglossal canal problems, hydrocephalus), leading to central apnea. More often, the two respiratory components (central and obstructive) are both evident in mixed apnea. Polysomnographic recording should be used during preoperative and postoperative assessment of achondroplastic children and in the subsequent follow-up to assess the adequacy of continuing home respiratory support, including supplemental oxygen, bilevel positive airway pressure, or assisted ventilation.

Sudden death in an infant revealing atypical Kawasaki disease.

We present a case of a 4-month-old girl referred to the emergency department with a provisional diagnosis of acute life-threatening event with a recent episode of heart block and a history of long-lasting fever. Soon after admission, the child suddenly deteriorated rapidly; she became pulseless with complete heart block and died despite intensive resuscitation efforts. Postmortem examination showed coronary arteritis with aneurysmal dilatation and coronary thrombosis, revealing atypical Kawasaki disease. With this case presentation, we discuss the importance of early recognition and treatment of atypical and/or incomplete forms of Kawasaki disease, which are most common in young infants and may lead, if untreated, to coronary artery abnormalities with a potential for myocardial infarctions, aneurysm formation, and sudden death. In addition, the relevance of postmortem examination in a case of sudden and undiagnosed infant death is underlined.