Improved lipid-lowering treatment and reduction in cardiovascular disease burden in homozygous familial hypercholesterolemia: The SAFEHEART follow-up study.

AIM: We aimed to describe clinical and genetic characteristics, lipid-lowering treatment and atherosclerotic cardiovascular disease (ASCVD) outcomes over a long-term follow-up in homozygous familial hypercholesterolemia (HoFH). METHODS: SAFEHEART (Spanish Familial Hypercholesterolaemia Cohort Study) is a long-term study in molecularly diagnosed FH. Data analyzed in HoFH were prospectively obtained from 2004 until 2022. ASCVD events, lipid profile and lipid-lowering treatment were determined. RESULTS: Thirty-nine HoFH patients were analyzed. The mean age was 42 ± 20 years and nineteen (49%) were women. Median follow-up was 11 years (IQR 6,18). Median age at genetic diagnosis was 24 years (IQR 8,42). At enrolment, 33% had ASCVD and 18% had aortic valve disease. Patients with new ASCVD events and aortic valve disease at follow-up were six (15%), and one (3%), respectively. Median untreated LDL-C levels were 555 mg/dL (IQ 413,800), and median LDL-C levels at last follow-up was 122 mg/dL (IQR 91,172). Most patients (92%) were on high intensity statins and ezetimibe, 28% with PCSK9i, 26% with lomitapide, and 23% with lipoprotein-apheresis. Fourteen patients (36%) attained an LDL-C level below 100 mg/dL, and 10% attained an LDL-C below 70 mg/dL in secondary prevention. Patients with null/null variants were youngers, had higher untreated LDL-C and had the first ASCVD event earlier. Free-event survival is longer in patients with defective variant compared with those patients with at least one null variant (p=0.02). CONCLUSIONS: HoFH is a severe life threating disease with a high genetic and phenotypic variability. The improvement in lipid-lowering treatment and LDL-C levels have contributed to reduce ASCVD events.

Age- and sex-based heterogeneity in coronary artery plaque presence and burden in familial hypercholesterolemia: A multi-national study.

Objectives: Individuals with familial hypercholesterolemia (FH) are at an increased risk for coronary artery disease (CAD). While prior research has shown variability in coronary artery calcification (CAC) among those with FH, studies with small sample sizes and single-center recruitment have been limited in their ability to characterize CAC and plaque burden in subgroups based on age and sex. Understanding the spectrum of atherosclerosis may result in personalized risk assessment and tailored allocation of costly add-on, non-statin lipid-lowering therapies. We aimed to characterize the presence and burden of CAC and coronary plaque on computed tomography angiography (CTA) across age- and sex-stratified subgroups of individuals with FH who were without CAD at baseline. Methods: We pooled 1,011 patients from six cohorts across Brazil, France, the Netherlands, Spain, and Australia. Our main measures of subclinical atherosclerosis included CAC ranges (i.e., 0, 1-100, 101-400, >400) and CTA-derived plaque burden (i.e., no plaque, non-obstructive CAD, obstructive CAD). Results: Ninety-five percent of individuals with FH (mean age: 48 years; 54% female; treated LDL-C: 154 mg/dL) had a molecular diagnosis and 899 (89%) were on statin therapy. Overall, 423 (42%) had CAC=0, 329 (33%) had CAC 1-100, 160 (16%) had CAC 101-400, and 99 (10%) had CAC >400. Compared to males, female patients were more likely to have CAC=0 (48% [n = 262] vs 35% [n = 161]) and no plaque on CTA (39% [n = 215] vs 26% [n = 120]). Among patients with CAC=0, 85 (20%) had non-obstructive CAD. Females also had a lower prevalence of obstructive CAD in CAC 1-100 (8% [n = 15] vs 18% [n = 26]), CAC 101-400 (32% [n = 22] vs 40% [n = 36]), and CAC >400 (52% [n = 16] vs 65% [n = 44]). Female patients aged 50-59 years were less likely to have obstructive CAD in CAC >400 (55% [n = 6] vs 70% [n = 19]). Conclusion: In this large, multi-national study, we found substantial age- and sex-based heterogeneity in CAC and plaque burden in a cohort of predominantly statin-treated individuals with FH, with evidence for a less pronounced increase in atherosclerosis among female patients. Future studies should examine the predictors of resilience to and long-term implications of the differential burden of subclinical coronary atherosclerosis in this higher risk population.

Impact of conducting a genetic study on the management of familial hypercholesterolemia.

BACKGROUND: Clinically diagnosed familial hypercholesterolemia (FH) may require a genetic test (GT) to confirm diagnosis. GT availability/accessibility is resource-dependent and usually restricted to specialized clinics. While GT has a diagnostic value, it has not yet defined its impact on long-term management and prognosis of FH. OBJECTIVE: The aim was to identify the clinical characteristics associated with the request for a GT in suspected heterozygous FH. METHODS: Retrospective study including adult patients with clinically suspected to be FH. Positive GT (GT+) was defined as having a pathogenic/likely pathogenic variant. Patients were stratified based on whether they had a genetic study conducted, and among those with a genetic study, according to those who did or did not have a GT+. RESULTS: From 4854 patients included, 3090 were performed a GT (GT+: 2113). Median follow-up: 6.2 years. A younger age, FH-related physical signs, premature coronary disease, higher low-density lipoprotein cholesterol (LDLc) and lower body mass index and triglycerides, associated higher odds of being conducted a genetic study. These patients had higher baseline LDLc (252 mg/dL vs. 211 mg/dL among clinically diagnosed patients) and experienced larger reductions over the follow-up (157.7 mg/dL vs. 113.5 mg/dL, respectively). A similar pattern was observed among patients with GT+ (vs. negative GT). LDLc target attainment was low but increased to 66-95% when a triple combination with statin/ezetimibe/proprotein convertase subtilisin kexin type 9-inhibitor was used. Cardiovascular events occurred in 3.2% and 3.1% of patients who conducted/not conducted a genetic study. Patients conducted a genetic analysis and those with GT+ tended to present the events earlier. CONCLUSIONS: Genetic study, vs. having a clinical-only diagnosis, impacts the management of FH. Cardiovascular prognosis was similar in both groups, perhaps as a result of the more intensive management of patients with a genetic study.

Impact of physician's perception about LDL cholesterol control in clinical practice when treating patients in Spain.

BACKGROUND AND AIMS: We aimed to understand the impact of physicians' perception about LDL-cholesterol (LDLc) control on the management of patients with dyslipidemia in Spain. METHODS: We performed a cross-sectional and multicenter study, in which 435 healthcare professionals participated in face-to-face meetings, collecting qualitative and quantitative information related to hypercholesterolemia management. Additionally, aggregated anonymized data of the last 10 patients with hypercholesterolemia attended by each physician were collected. RESULTS: A total of 4,010 patients (8%, 13%, 16% and 61% with low, moderate, high, and very high cardiovascular [CV] risk) were included. Physicians' perception was that 62% of their patients attained LDLc goals (66%, 63%, 61% and 56%, for low, moderate, high and very high CV risk, respectively). However, when looking into the data only 31% (vs 62% p<0.01) of patients attained the LDLc goals (47%, 36%, 22% and 25%, respectively). Overall, 33% of patients were taking high intensity statins, 32% statin/ezetimibe, 21% low/moderate intensity statins and 4% PCSK9 inhibitors. These numbers were 38%, 45%, 8% and 6% for very high risk patients and 44%, 21%, 21% and 4% for high CV risk patients. In 32% of patients, a change in lipid lowering therapy was performed after the visit, mainly combining statins/ezetimibe (55%). CONCLUSIONS: In Spain, most patients with dyslipidemia do not achieve the recommended LDLc goals because of an insufficient intensification of lipid lowering therapy. On the one hand, this is in part due to physicians misperception on preventive LDLc control and the need for repeated advice to patient, and, on the other, to the lack of patient adherence.

Hypercholesterolaemia control in Spain: The same situation with different regional realities. / Control de la hipercolesterolemia en España: una misma situación con diferentes realidades autonómicas.

INTRODUCTION AND OBJECTIVE: The cardiovascular prevention strategy by autonomous communities can be variable since the competences in health are transferred. The objective of the study was to determine the degree of dyslipidaemia control and the lipid-lowering pharmacological therapy used in patients at high/very high cardiovascular risk (CVR) by autonomous communities. METHODS: Observational, cross-sectional, descriptive study based on a consensus methodology. Information on the clinical practice of 145 health areas belonging to 17 Spanish autonomous communities was collected through face-to-face meetings and questionnaires administered to the 435 participating physicians. Furthermore, aggregate non-identifiable data were compiled from 10 consecutive dyslipidaemic patients that each participant had recently visited. RESULTS: Of the 4010 patients collected, 649 (16%) had high and 2458 (61%) very high CVR. The distribution of the 3107 high/very high CVR patients was balanced across regions, but there were inter-regional differences (P<.0001) in the achievement of target LDL-C <70 and <55mg/dL, respectively. High-intensity statins in monotherapy or in combination with ezetimibe and/or PCSK9 inhibitors were used in 44, 21 and 4% of high CVR patients, while in those at very high CVR it rose to 38, 45 and 6%, respectively. The use of these lipid-lowering therapies at national level was significantly different between regions (P=.0079). CONCLUSIONS: Even though the distribution of patients at high/very high CVR was similar between autonomous communities, inter-territorial differences were identified in the degree of achievement of LDL cholesterol therapeutic goal and use of lipid-lowering therapy.

PCSK9 Inhibitors Have Apolipoprotein C-III-Related Anti-Inflammatory Activity, Assessed by 1H-NMR Glycoprotein Profile in Subjects at High or very High Cardiovascular Risk.

Atherosclerosis is a chronic inflammatory disease caused by the accumulation of cholesterol in the intima. Proprotein convertase subtilisin/kexin type 9 inhibitors (iPCSK9) can reduce low-density lipoprotein (LDL) cholesterol levels by 60%, but there is still no evidence that they can lower markers of systemic inflammation such as high-sensitivity C-reactive protein (hsCRP). Acute-phase serum glycoproteins are upregulated in the liver during systemic inflammation, and their role as inflammatory biomarkers is under clinical evaluation. In this observational study, we evaluate the effects of iPCSK9 on glycoproteins (Glyc) A, B and F. Thirty-nine patients eligible for iPCSK9 therapy were enrolled. One sample before and after one to six months of iPCSK9 therapy with alirocumab was obtained from each patient. Lipids, apolipoproteins, hsCRP and PCSK9 levels were measured by biochemical analyses, and the lipoprotein and glycoprotein profiles were measured by 1H nuclear magnetic resonance (1H-NMR). The PCSK9 inhibitor reduced total (36.27%, p < 0.001), LDL (55.05%, p < 0.001) and non-high-density lipoprotein (HDL) (45.11%, p < 0.001) cholesterol, apolipoprotein (apo) C-III (10%, p < 0.001), triglycerides (9.92%, p < 0.001) and glycoprotein signals GlycA (11.97%, p < 0.001), GlycB (3.83%, p = 0.017) and GlycF (7.26%, p < 0.001). It also increased apoA-I (2.05%, p = 0.043) and HDL cholesterol levels (11.58%, p < 0.001). Circulating PCSK9 levels increased six-fold (626.28%, p < 0.001). The decrease in Glyc signals positively correlated with the decrease in triglycerides and apoC-III. In conclusion, in addition to LDL cholesterol, iPCSK9 therapy also induces a reduction in systemic inflammation measured by 1H-NMR glycoprotein signals, which correlates with a decrease in triglycerides and apoC-III.

Prevalence of atherogenic dyslipidemia, related factors and level of lipid control in the general population of Galicia. GALIPEMIAS study. / Prevalencia de dislipemia aterogénica, factores relacionados y grado de control lipídico en la población general de Galicia. Estudio GALIPEMIAS.

OBJECTIVES: GALIPEMIAS is a study designed to establish the prevalence of familial dyslipidemia in the general population of Galicia. The objective of the present study was to assess the prevalence of atherogenic dyslipidemia (AD), its relationship with other cardiovascular risk (CVR) factors, and the degree of lipid control. METHODS: Cross-sectional study carried out in the general population over 18 years of age residing in Galicia and with a health card from the Galician Health Service (N=1,000). Selection of the sample by means of random sampling by conglomerates. The AD prevalence adjusted for age and sex and the related variables were analyzed. RESULTS: The prevalence of AD adjusted for age and sex was 6.6% (95% CI: 5.0-8.3%). Arterial hypertension, altered basal glycemia, type 2 diabetes mellitus and cardiovascular disease were more frequent in subjects with AD than in the rest of the population. 47.5% of the subjects with AD had a high or very high CVR. Lipid-lowering drugs were received by 38.9% (30.5% statins) of the participants with AD (46.1% of those with high and 71.4% of those with very high CVR). 25.4% of the subjects with AD had target LDL-c levels, all of them with low or moderate CVR. CONCLUSIONS: The prevalence of AD in the general adult population of Galicia is not negligible, and it was related to several CVR factors and cardiovascular disease. Despite this, this lipid alteration was underdiagnosed and undertreated.

Persistence with long-term PCSK9 inhibitor treatment and its effectiveness in familial hypercholesterolaemia: data from the SAFEHEART study.

AIMS: Most heterozygous familial hypercholesterolaemia (FH) patients require intensive lipid-lowering therapy (LLT) including PCSK9 inhibitors (PCSK9is) to reach current low-density lipoprotein cholesterol (LDL-C) goals. Persistence with chronic treatment is important to reduce the burden of atherosclerotic cardiovascular disease. We analysed persistence, efficacy, and impact on quality of life (QoL) of PCSK9i in FH patients in clinical practice setting. METHODS AND RESULTS: Spanish Familial Hypercholesterolaemia Cohort Study (SAFEHEART) is an open, prospective study in genetically defined FH patients in Spain. Patients ≥18 years of age (n = 696, 46% females) on stable LLT treated with PCSK9i were analysed. Median LDL-C at starting PCSK9i was 145 mg/dL [interquartile range (IQR), 123-177], 3.8 mmol/L (IQR 3.2-4.6). After a median follow up of 3.7 years (IQR 2.3-4.8), 27 patients (4%) discontinued PCSK9i treatment: 5 temporarily (0.7%) and 22 permanently (3.2%). Persistence with PCSK9i was 96.1% in the whole period. Median LDL-C levels and % LDL-C reduction attained after 1 year of treatment and in the last follow-up visit were 63 mg/dL (IQR 43-88), 1.6 mmol/L (IQR 1.1-2.23); 61 mg/dL (IQR 44-82), 1.6 mmol/L (IQR 1.1-2.1); 57.6% (IQR 39.5-69); and 58% (IQR 44-68), respectively. 2016 and 2019 ESC/EAS LDL-C goals were attained by 77 and 48% of patients, respectively, at the last follow-up visit (P < 0.001). Mean QoL score increased slightly in the first year and remained stable. CONCLUSION: Long-term persistence with PCSK9i in FH patients is very high, with a good QoL. Effectiveness in LDL-C reduction and LDL-C goal achievement dramatically improved with PCSK9i in this high-risk population in clinical practice setting. TRIAL REGISTRATION: ClinicalTrials.gov number NCT02693548.

Familial Hypercholesterolemia and Lipoprotein(a): Two Partners in Crime?

PURPOSE OF REVIEW: Familial hypercholesterolemia is a high cardiovascular risk disorder. We will review the role of lipoprotein(a) in cardiovascular risk and in aortic valve stenosis in familial hypercholesterolemia, as well as its association with their phenotype, and strategies to identify this high-risk population. RECENT FINDINGS: Patients with familial hypercholesterolemia have higher lipoprotein(a) levels mainly due to an increased frequency of LPA variants, and the cardiovascular risk is increased twofolds when both conditions coexist. Also, an increased risk for aortic valve stenosis and valve replacement has been observed with high lipoprotein(a) levels. Assessment of lipoprotein(a) during the cascade screening for familial hypercholesterolemia is a good opportunity to identify this high-risk population. High cardiovascular risk in familial hypercholesterolemia is increased even more when lipoprotein(a) is also elevated. Measurement of lipoprotein(a) in these patients is crucial to identify those subjects who need to intensify LDL-cholesterol reduction pending availability of lipoprotein(a)-specific treatments.

Dyslipidemia observatory: Treatment of hypercholesterolemia in Spain, context and levers for improvement in clinical practice. / Protocolo del observatorio de las dislipemias: Tratamiento de la hipercolesterolemia en España, contexto e identificación de medidas de mejora en práctica clínica habitual.

INTRODUCTION AND OBJECTIVES: The treatment of dyslipidemia exhibits wide variability in clinical practice and important limitations that make lipid-lowering goals more difficult to attain. Getting to know the management of these patients in clinical practice is key to understand the existing barriers and to define actions that contribute to achieving the therapeutic goals from the most recent Clinical Practice Guidelines. METHODS: Observatory where the information gathered is based on routine clinical practice and the experience from the healthcare professionals involved in the treatment of dyslipidemia in Spain. The information is collected by health area through: (i) face-to-face meeting with three different medical specialties and (ii) quantitative information related to hypercholesterolemia patients' management (ad-hoc questionnaire). Information includes patients' profiles, assistance burden, guidelines and protocols used, goal attainment, limitations and opportunities in clinical practice. RESULTS: 145 health areas are planned to be included, with the participation of up to 435 healthcare professionals from the 17 Autonomous Regions of Spain. Information collection will result in aggregated data from over four thousand patients. CONCLUSIONS: This observatory aims to understand how hypercholesterolemia is being treated in routine clinical practice in Spain. Even though the preliminary results show important improvement areas in the treatment of dyslipidemias, mechanisms to drive a change towards health outcomes optimization are also identified.

Differences in the diabetogenic effect of statins in patients with prediabetes. The PRELIPID study.

INTRODUCTION: Statins are used with the understanding that a slightly increased risk of diabetes is outweighed by their cardiovascular benefits. However, it may be necessary to reconsider whether statin therapy really increase this risk mainly in the population with prediabetes. METHODS: A multicenter, cross-sectional, observational study was conducted to assess the relationship between statin therapy and glucose metabolism in 407 patients aged 63.1 years (11SD) diagnosed with dyslipidemia and prediabetes treated in specialized lipid clinics in Spain. RESULTS: Significant differences were found in HbA1c values among treatment groups (p=0.015). Patients treated with pitavastatin (1-4mg/day) showed the lowest HbA1c levels, with significant differences compared to patients treated with atorvastatin 40-80mg/day (p=0.016) and simvastatin 10-40mg/day (p=0.036). By contrast, patients treated with atorvastatin 40-80mg/day showed the highest HbA1c levels compared to those receiving atorvastatin 10-20mg/day (p=0.003), pitavastatin 1-4mg/day (p=0.016), pravastatin 20-40mg/day (p=0.027), rosuvastatin 5-10mg/day (p=0.043), and no statin treatment (p=0.004). Patients treated with simvastatin 10-40mg/day also had higher values than those treated with atorvastatin 10-20mg/day (p=0.016) and pitavastatin 1-4mg/day (p=0.036) or with no statin treatment (p=0.018). CONCLUSIONS: This study suggests that there are differences in the diabetogenic effect of statins. Simvastatin and high doses of atorvastatin may be associated with greater impairment in glucose metabolism than pitavastatin and other statins with less lipid-lowering potency such as pravastatin.

A resilient type of familial hypercholesterolaemia: case-control follow-up of genetically characterized older patients in the SAFEHEART cohort.

AIMS: Knowledge of the features of patients with familial hypercholesterolaemia (FH) who are protected from atherosclerotic cardiovascular disease (ASCVD) is important for the clinical and prognostic care of this apparently high-risk condition. Our aim was to investigate the determinant and characteristics of patients with FH who are protected from ASCVD and have normal life expectancy, so-called 'resilient' FH (R-FH). METHODS AND RESULTS: Spanish Familial Hypercholesterolaemia cohort study (SAFEHEART) is an open, multicentre, nation-wide, long-term prospective cohort study in genetically defined patients with heterozygous FH in Spain. Patients in the registry who at the time of analysis were at least 65 years or those who would have reached that age had they not died from an ASCVD event were analysed as a case-control study. Resilient FH was defined as the presence of a pathogenic mutation causative of FH in a patient aged ≥65 years without clinical ASCVD. Nine hundred and thirty registrants with FH met the study criteria. A defective low-density lipoprotein (LDL)-receptor mutation, higher plasma level of high-density lipoprotein cholesterol (HDL-C), younger age, female gender, absence of hypertension, and lower plasma lipoprotein (a) [Lp(a)] concentration were independently predictive of R-FH. In a second model, higher levels of HDL-C and lower 10-year score in SAFEHEART-RE were also independently predictive of R-FH. CONCLUSION: Resilient FH may be typified as being female and having a defective LDL-receptor mutation, higher levels of plasma HDL-C, lower levels of Lp(a), and an absence of hypertension. The implications of this type of FH for clinical practice guidelines and the value for service design and optional care of FH remains to be established. TRIAL REGISTRATION: ClinicalTrials.gov number NCT02693548.

Efficacy of PCSK9 inhibitors in the treatment of heterozygous familial hypercholesterolemia: A clinical practice experience.

BACKGROUND: PCSK9 inhibitors are a treatment option for patients with familial hypercholesterolemia not on low-density lipoprotein cholesterol goals despite the use of maximally tolerated high intensity-statins dose. OBJECTIVE: To evaluate the efficacy of alirocumab and evolocumab in LDL-C reduction and targets attainment in patients with heterozygous familial hypercholesterolemia in clinical practice setting. METHODS: SAFEHEART is an open, long-term prospective study of a cohort of subjects with molecular diagnosis of familial hypercholesterolemia. This study analyze subjects ≥ 20 years of age on stable lipid-lowering therapy, who received PCSK9 inhibitors during the period 2016 to January 2020. RESULTS: 433 patients (mean age 55 years, 53% male, 39% with cardiovascular disease) were included and followed-up for a median of 2.5 years (IQR 1.6-3.0). Median LDL-C level prior to PCSK9 inhibitors was 145 mg/dL (IQR 125-173). The addition of PCSK9 inhibitors (211 alirocumab, 222 evolocumab) reduced LDL-C by 58% (IQR 41-70) p<0.001, in men and women, achieving a median LDL-C level of 62 mg/dL (IQR 44-87) without differences between both PCSK9 inhibitors. Out of them 67% with and 80% without cardiovascular disease reached 2016 ESC/EAS LDL-C targets, and 46% very high risk and 50% high risk patients achieved 2019 ESC/EAS LDL-C goals. Independent predictor factors for attainment of 2019 ESC/EAS LDL-C goals were to be male, smoking and the use of statins with ezetimibe. Both inhibitors were well tolerated. CONCLUSIONS: PCSK9 inhibitors on top of maximum lipid-lowering treatment significantly reduced LDL-C levels in patients with familial hypercholesterolemia and improved the achievement of LDL-C targets.

Familial chylomicronemia and multifactorial chylomicronemia. / Quilomicronemia familiar y quilomicronemia multifactorial.

The accumulation of chylomicrons in plasma beyond the postprandial period is a pathological event secondary to the partial or complete lack of activity of lipoprotein lipase that can lead to recurrent episodes of abdominal pain and acute pancreatitis. This article reviews the pathophysiology of this syndrome and the differential characteristics depending on whether it is due to congenital monogenic causes or acquired on a polygenic basis in which multiple factors may inluence.

Lipoprotein(a), LDL-cholesterol, and hypertension: predictors of the need for aortic valve replacement in familial hypercholesterolaemia.

AIMS: Familial hypercholesterolaemia (FH) and elevated lipoprotein(a) [Lp(a)] are inherited disorders associated with premature atherosclerotic cardiovascular disease (ASCVD). Aortic valve stenosis (AVS) is the most prevalent valvular heart disease and low-density lipoprotein cholesterol (LDL-C) and Lp(a) may be involved in its pathobiology. We investigated the frequency and predictors of severe AVS requiring aortic valve replacement (AVR) in molecularly defined patients with FH. METHODS AND RESULTS: SAFEHEART is a long-term prospective cohort study of a population with FH and non-affected relatives (NAR). We analysed the frequency and predictors of the need for AVR due to AVS in this cohort. Five thousand and twenty-two subjects were enrolled (3712 with FH; 1310 NAR). Fifty patients with FH (1.48%) and 3 NAR (0.27%) required AVR [odds ratio 5.71; 95% confidence interval (CI): 1.78-18.4; P = 0.003] after a mean follow-up of 7.48 (3.75) years. The incidence of AVR was significantly higher in patients with FH (log-rank 5.93; P = 0.015). Cox regression analysis demonstrated an association between FH and AVR (hazard ratio: 3.89; 95% CI: 1.20-12.63; P = 0.024), with older age, previous ASCVD, hypertension, increased LDL-CLp(a)-years, and elevated Lp(a) being independently predictive of an event. CONCLUSION: The need for AVR due to AVS is significantly increased in FH patients, particularly in those who are older and have previous ASCVD, hypertension, increased LDL-CLp(a)-years and elevated Lp(a). Reduction in LDL-C and Lp(a) together with control of hypertension could retard the progression of AVS in FH, but this needs testing in clinical trials.ClinicalTrials.gov number NCT02693548.

High miR-133a levels in the circulation anticipates presentation of clinical events in familial hypercholesterolaemia patients.

AIMS: Presentation of acute events in patients with atherosclerosis remains unpredictable even after controlling for classical risk factors. MicroRNAs (miRNAs) measured in liquid biopsies could be good candidate biomarkers to improve risk prediction. Here, we hypothesized that miRNAs could predict atherosclerotic plaque progression and clinical event presentation in familial hypercholesterolaemia (FH) patients. METHODS AND RESULTS: Circulating miRNAs (plasma, exosomes, and microvesicles) were investigated by TaqMan Array and RT-qPCR assays. Patients with genetic diagnosis of FH and healthy relatives from the SAFEHEART cohort were included. A differential signature of 10 miRNA was obtained by comparing two extreme phenotypes consisting of FH patients suffering a cardiovascular event (CVE) within a 8-year follow-up period (FH-CVE, N = 42) and non-FH hypercholesterolaemic relatives from the same cohort, matched for age and treatment, without CVE during the same period (nFH-nCVE, N = 30). The validation studies included two independent groups of patients with FH background (discovery group, N = 89, validation group N = 196), developing a future CVE (FH-CVE) or not (FH-nCVE) within the same time period of follow-up. Of the 10 miRNAs initially selected, miR-133a was significantly higher in FH-CVE than in FH-nCVE patients. Receiver operating characteristic analysis confirmed miR-133a as the best microRNA for predicting CVE in FH patients (0.76 ± 0.054; P < 0.001). Furthermore, Kaplan-Meier and COX analysis showed that high plasma miR-133a levels associated to the higher risk of presenting a CVE within the next 8 years (hazard ratio 3.89, 95% confidence interval 1.88-8.07; P < 0.001). In silico analysis of curate biological interactions related miR-133a with target genes involved in regulation of the cell-membrane lipid-receptor LRP6 and inflammatory cytokines (CXCL8, IL6, and TNF). These predictions were experimentally proven in human macrophages and endothelial cells transfected with agomiR-133a. CONCLUSION: Elevated levels of miR-133a in the circulation anticipate those FH patients that are going to present a clinical CVE within the next 2 years (average). Mechanistically, miR-133a is directly related with lipid- and inflammatory signalling in key cells for atherosclerosis progression.

Coronary plaque burden, plaque characterization and their prognostic implications in familial hypercholesterolemia: A computed tomographic angiography study.

BACKGROUND AND AIMS: Heterozygous familial hypercholesterolemia (FH) is associated with premature atherosclerotic cardiovascular disease. Semi-automated plaque characterization (SAPC) by coronary computed tomographic angiography (CTA) provides information regarding coronary plaque burden and plaque characterization. Our aim was to quantify and characterize the coronary plaque burden of patients with FH using SAPC analysis and to identify which factors are related to plaque burden and plaque characteristics. A second aim was to analyse the prognostic implications of these parameters. METHODS: Two hundred and fifty-nine asymptomatic individuals with molecularly determined FH were enrolled in this follow-up cohort study and underwent a coronary CTA analysed with SAPC. RESULTS: Mean follow-up time after coronary CTA was 3.9 ± 2 years. Mean age was 46.9 (10.7) years (130 women, 50.2%). Median plaque burden was 25.0% (19.0-29.0), non-calcified plaque burden 22.83% (17.94-26.88), calcified plaque-burden 1.12% (0.31-2.86) and CCS 8.9 (0-93). Five-year risk was independently related to plaque burden, non-calcified plaque burden, calcified plaque burden and coronary calcium score (B:3.75, 95%CI:2.92-4.58; p < 0.001, B:2.9, 95%CI:2.15-3.66; p < 0.001, B:0.75, 95%CI 0.4-1.1; p < 0.001 and B:82.2, 95%CI:49.28-115.16; p < 0.001 respectively). During follow-up, there were 15 (5.81%) nonfatal events and 1 (0.4%) fatal event. Plaque burden was significantly related to event-free survival during follow-up (HR:1.11; 95%CI:1.05-1.18; p < 0.001). CONCLUSIONS: Coronary atherosclerosis and its qualitative components may be quantified by means of SAPC in patients with FH. Plaque burden, calcified plaque burden and non-calcified plaque burden were independently related to the estimated cardiovascular risk. Plaque burden was also related to prognosis.

Phenotypical, Clinical, and Molecular Aspects of Adults and Children With Homozygous Familial Hypercholesterolemia in Iberoamerica.

OBJECTIVE: Characterize homozygous familial hypercholesterolemia (HoFH) individuals from Iberoamerica. Approach and Results: In a cross-sectional retrospective evaluation 134 individuals with a HoFH phenotype, 71 adults (age 39.3±15.8 years, 38.0% males), and 63 children (age 8.8±4.0 years, 50.8% males) were studied. Genetic characterization was available in 129 (96%). The majority (91%) were true homozygotes (true HoFH, n=79, 43.0% children, 46.8% males) or compound heterozygotes (compound heterozygous familial hypercholesterolemia, n=39, 51.3% children, 46.2% males) with putative pathogenic variants in the LDLR. True HoFH due to LDLR variants had higher total (P=0.015) and LDL (low-density lipoprotein)-cholesterol (P=0.008) compared with compound heterozygous familial hypercholesterolemia. Children with true HoFH (n=34) tended to be diagnosed earlier (P=0.051) and had a greater frequency of xanthomas (P=0.016) than those with compound heterozygous familial hypercholesterolemia (n=20). Previous major cardiovascular events were present in 25 (48%) of 52 children (missing information in 2 cases), and in 43 (67%) of 64 adults with LDLR variants. Children who are true HoFH had higher frequency of major cardiovascular events (P=0.02), coronary heart (P=0.013), and aortic/supra-aortic valve diseases (P=0.022) than compound heterozygous familial hypercholesterolemia. In adults, no differences were observed in major cardiovascular events according to type of LDLR variant. From 118 subjects with LDLR variants, 76 (64%) had 2 likely pathogenic or pathogenic variants. In 89 subjects with 2 LDLR variants, those with at least one null allele were younger (P=0.003) and had a greater frequency of major cardiovascular events (P=0.038) occurring at an earlier age (P=0.001). CONCLUSIONS: There was a high frequency of cardiovascular disease even in children. Phenotype and cardiovascular complications were heterogeneous and associated with the type of molecular defect.

Incidence of cardiovascular events and changes in the estimated risk and treatment of familial hypercholesterolemia: the SAFEHEART registry.

INTRODUCTION AND OBJECTIVES: The SAFEHEART study was designed to analyze the situation of familial heterozygous hypercholesterolemia (FHH) and improve knowledge of this disease in Spain. Our objective was to determine the incidence rate of cardiovascular events, the estimated risk of developing an event and its modification, the use of lipid-lowering treatment, and the achievement of low-density lipoprotein cholesterol targets in patients with FHH. METHODS: SAFEHEART is a prospective, open, multicenter, nationwide cohort study, with long-term protocol-based follow-up in a population of individuals with molecularly-characterized FHH. We analyzed patients older than 18 years with complete follow-up. RESULTS: We included 2648 patients with FHH. The median follow-up was 6.6 (4.8-9.7) years. The overall incidence rate of cardiovascular events was 1.3 events/100 patient-years. After the follow-up, the 10-year estimated risk of developing a cardiovascular event was reduced from 1.6% to 1.3% (P <.001). In the last follow-up, 20.6% and 22.2% of the patients in primary and secondary prevention achieved low-density lipoprotein cholesterol values <100mg/dL and <70mg/dL, respectively. CONCLUSIONS: This study was performed in the largest population of patients with FHH in Spain. We identified the incidence rate of cardiovascular events, the estimated risk of developing a cardiovascular event and its modification, the achievement of low-density lipoprotein cholesterol targets, and the therapeutic management in this population. Although the cardiovascular risk of FHH is high, appropriate treatment reduces the likelihood of an event. CLINICAL TRIAL REGISTRATION: http://www.clinicaltrials.gov. Identifier: NCT02693548.

Association of dietary components with dyslipidemia and low-grade inflammation biomarkers in adults with heterozygous familial hypercholesterolemia from different countries.

The association of components of a low saturated fat (SFA) and of a Mediterranean diet was tested with atherosclerosis biomarkers in 190 familial hypercholesterolemia adults (FH) from Brazil (BR) and Spain (SP). Median blood LDL-C, Apolipoprotein B (apoB), and C reactive protein (hs-CRP) concentrations were higher in BR than in SP: 179.0 vs.161 mg/dL; 141 vs. 103 mg/dL; and 1.6 vs. 0.8 mg/L respectively (all p < 0.001). In BR there was lower median total fat (22.3 vs. 38.3%) and SFA (8.1 vs. 12.5%) but higher cholesterol (283.3 mg vs.188.9 mg) and carbohydrate (57.1 vs. 42.5%) consumption (all p < 0.001). Inverse associations were encountered between fibers, mono, and polyunsaturated fats and their ratios to SFA with LDL-C and ApoB (all p < 0.001). There was a direct association respectively of cholesterol with lipid biomarkers and of carbohydrates and trans-fatty acids with hs-CRP while other fats showed inverse relations with the latter (p < 0.001).