ß-Endorphin antagonizes the effects of α-MSH on food intake and body weight.

Proopiomelanocortin (POMC) is posttranslationally processed to several peptides including α-MSH, a primary regulator of energy balance that inhibits food intake and stimulates energy expenditure. However, another POMC-derived peptide, ß-endorphin (ß-EP), has been shown to stimulate food intake. In this study we examined the effects of intracerebroventricular (icv) ß-EP on food intake and its ability to antagonize the negative effects of α-MSH on energy balance in male rats. A single icv injection of ß-EP stimulated food intake over a 2- to 6-h period during both the light and dark cycles. This effect was, however, not sustained with chronic icv ß-EP infusion. In the next study, a subthreshold dose of ß-EP was injected together with Nle(4), d-Phe(7) (NDP)-MSH after a 16-h fast, and the negative effects of NDP-MSH on refeeding and body weight gain were partially reversed. Finally, peptide interactions were studied in a chronic icv infusion model. Weight gain and food intake were significantly suppressed in the NDP-MSH group during the entire study. A subthreshold dose of ß-EP antagonized these suppressive effects on food intake and weight gain for the first 3 d. However on d 4-7, ß-EP no longer blocked these effects. Of note, the stimulatory effect of ß-EP on feeding and its ability to antagonize MSH were specific for ß-EP(1-31) and were not observed with ß-EP(1-27). This study highlights the importance of understanding how the balance between α-MSH and ß-EP is maintained and the potential role of differential POMC processing in regulating energy balance.

Brain insulin controls adipose tissue lipolysis and lipogenesis.

White adipose tissue (WAT) dysfunction plays a key role in the pathogenesis of type 2 diabetes (DM2). Unrestrained WAT lipolysis results in increased fatty acid release, leading to insulin resistance and lipotoxicity, while impaired de novo lipogenesis in WAT decreases the synthesis of insulin-sensitizing fatty acid species like palmitoleate. Here, we show that insulin infused into the mediobasal hypothalamus (MBH) of Sprague-Dawley rats increases WAT lipogenic protein expression, inactivates hormone-sensitive lipase (Hsl), and suppresses lipolysis. Conversely, mice that lack the neuronal insulin receptor exhibit unrestrained lipolysis and decreased de novo lipogenesis in WAT. Thus, brain and, in particular, hypothalamic insulin action play a pivotal role in WAT functionality.

Dosing protocol and analgesic efficacy determine opioid tolerance in the mouse.

RATIONALE: Analgesic efficacy of opioids and dosing protocol have been shown to influence analgesic tolerance. OBJECTIVE: This study tested the hypothesis that there is an inverse relationship between analgesic efficacy and tolerance following continuous infusion of opioid analgesics. Furthermore, it was hypothesized that analgesic efficacy plays a minor role in determining the magnitude of tolerance following intermittent or acute administration, and that acute and intermittent administration of opioid agonists produces less tolerance than continuous infusion. MATERIALS AND METHODS: Analgesic (tailflick) efficacy (tau) of etorphine, methadone, oxycodone, and hydrocodone was determined using the operational model of agonism. To induce tolerance, mice were injected with opioid agonists once (acute), once per day for 7 days (intermittent) or continuously infused for 7 days. Dose-response studies were conducted using morphine following treatment. RESULTS: The order of analgesic efficacy was etorphine > methadone > oxycodone congruent with hydrocodone. Infusion of the higher analgesic efficacy drug etorphine produced significantly less tolerance than the lower analgesic efficacy drugs oxycodone, methadone, and hydrocodone at equi-effective doses. In general, intermittent and acute treatment produced less tolerance compared to continuous infusion even at similar daily doses. CONCLUSION: Taken together, intermittent and acute opioid agonist administration produces minimal tolerance compared to continuous infusion. Furthermore, there is an inverse relationship between analgesic efficacy and tolerance following continuous infusion. These results suggest that opioid analgesic tolerance may be increased when sustained release dosing formulations or continuous infusions are employed clinically.

The relative potency of inverse opioid agonists and a neutral opioid antagonist in precipitated withdrawal and antagonism of analgesia and toxicity.

Opioid antagonists can be classified as inverse agonists and neutral antagonists. In the opioid-dependent state, neutral antagonists are significantly less potent in precipitating withdrawal than inverse agonists. Consequently, neutral opioid antagonists may offer advantages over inverse agonists in the management of opioid overdose. In this study, the relative potency of three opioid antagonists to block opioid analgesia and toxicity and precipitate withdrawal was examined. First, the potency of two opioid inverse agonists (naltrexone and naloxone) and a neutral antagonist (6beta-naltrexol) to antagonize fentanyl-induced analgesia and lethality was determined. The order of potency to block analgesia was naltrexone > naloxone > 6beta-naltrexol (17, 4, 1), which was similar to that to block lethality (13, 2, 1). Next, the antagonists were compared using withdrawal jumping in fentanyl-dependent mice. The order of potency to precipitate withdrawal jumping was naltrexone > naloxone 6beta-naltrexol (1107, 415, 1). The relative potencies to precipitate withdrawal for the inverse agonists compared with the neutral antagonist were dramatically different from that for antagonism of analgesia and lethality. Finally, the effect of 6beta-naltrexol pretreatment on naloxone-precipitated jumping was determined in morphine and fentanyl-dependent mice. 6beta-Naltrexol pretreatment decreased naloxone precipitated withdrawal, indicating that 6beta-naltrexol is a neutral antagonist. These data demonstrate that inverse agonists and neutral antagonists have generally comparable potencies to block opioid analgesia and lethality, whereas the neutral opioid antagonist is substantially less potent in precipitating opioid withdrawal. These results support suggestions that neutral antagonists may have advantages over inverse agonists in the management of opioid overdose.

Continuous morphine produces more tolerance than intermittent or acute treatment.

Dosing protocol and analgesic efficacy have been proposed to be important determinants of the magnitude of opioid tolerance. The present study examined the effect of acute, intermittent and continuous treatment with the low analgesic efficacy agonist morphine on analgesic tolerance. Mice were implanted s.c. with a 25 mg morphine pellet for 1-7 days. Other mice were implanted s.c. with two 25 mg, or one 75 mg morphine pellet for 7 days. The release of morphine from subcutaneous implanted pellets was quantitated using a spectrophotometric assay. In other studies, mice were injected with morphine once (18.5-185 mg/kg/day; approximately 10-100 times ED(50) for morphine analgesia) or once/day for 7 days. Controls were implanted with a placebo pellet or injected with saline. Analysis of drug release from a 25 mg pellet indicated that release was greatest during the first 24 h, declined and then remained relatively constant. The amount of morphine released over 7 days by a 75 mg pellet (23.9 mg) was more than that of a single 25 mg pellet (15.4 mg) but less than two 25 mg pellets (30.8 mg). Following treatment, morphine cumulative dose-response studies were conducted (tail flick). Continuous treatment with morphine using pellet implantation produced a dose-dependent shift in the morphine ED(50) by 3.3, 5.8 and 8.5 fold for one 25 mg pellet, one 75 mg pellet and two 25 mg pellets, respectively. Acute and intermittent morphine administration produced substantially less analgesic tolerance than continuous release of morphine by implant pellets. The maximum shift in the ED(50) was 1.6 for acute treatment and 2.7 for 7 day intermittent treatment; despite a larger total daily dose. The present results indicate that continuous treatment with morphine results in greater analgesic tolerance than acute or intermittent morphine treatment even at comparable daily doses. These results are consistent with the suggestion that intermittent dosing has reduced risk of producing opioid tolerance.

Hydromorphone efficacy and treatment protocol impact on tolerance and mu-opioid receptor regulation.

This study examined the antinociceptive (analgesic) efficacy of hydromorphone and hydromorphone-induced tolerance and regulation of mu-opioid receptor density. Initially s.c. hydromorphone's time of peak analgesic (tail-flick) effect (45 min) and ED50 using standard and cumulative dosing protocols (0.22 mg/kg, 0.37 mg/kg, respectively) were determined. The apparent analgesic efficacy (tau) of hydromorphone was then estimated using the operational model of agonism and the irreversible mu-opioid receptor antagonist clocinnamox. Mice were injected with clocinnamox (0.32-25.6 mg/kg, i.p.) and 24 h later, the analgesic potency of hydromorphone was determined. The tau value for hydromorphone was 35, which suggested that hydromorphone is a lower analgesic efficacy opioid agonist. To examine hydromorphone-induced tolerance, mice were continuously infused s.c. with hydromorphone (2.1-31.5 mg/kg/day) for 7 days and then morphine cumulative dose response studies were performed. Other groups of mice were injected with hydromorphone (2.2-22 mg/kg/day) once, or intermittently every 24 h for 7 days. Twenty-four hours after the last injection, mice were tested using morphine cumulative dosing studies. There was more tolerance with infusion treatments compared to intermittent treatment. When compared to higher analgesic efficacy opioids, hydromorphone infusions induced substantially more tolerance. Finally, the effect of chronic infusion (31.5 mg/kg/day) and 7 day intermittent (22 mg/kg/day) hydromorphone treatment on spinal cord mu-opioid receptor density was determined. Hydromorphone did not produce any change in mu-opioid receptor density following either treatment. These results support suggestions that analgesic efficacy is correlated with tolerance magnitude and regulation of mu-opioid receptors when opioid agonists are continuously administered. Taken together, these studies indicate that analgesic efficacy and treatment protocol are important in determining tolerance and regulation of mu-opioid receptors.

The analgesic efficacy of fentanyl: relationship to tolerance and mu-opioid receptor regulation.

This study determined if fentanyl analgesic efficacy predicts the magnitude of tolerance and mu-opioid receptor regulation. To estimate efficacy, mice were injected i.p. with saline or clocinnamox (CCAM), an irreversible mu-opioid receptor antagonist, (0.32-25.6 mg/kg) and 24 h later fentanyl cumulative dose-response studies were conducted. CCAM dose dependently shifted the fentanyl dose-response function to the right. The apparent efficacy (tau) of fentanyl, based on the operational model of agonism, was estimated as 58, indicating that fentanyl is a high analgesic efficacy agonist. Next, mice were infused with fentanyl (1, 2 or 4 mg/kg/day) for 7 days. Controls were implanted with placebo pellets. At the end of 7 days, morphine cumulative dose-response studies or mu-opioid receptor saturation binding studies were conducted. Fentanyl infusions dose dependently decreased morphine potency with the highest fentanyl dose reducing morphine potency by approximately 6 fold. Chronic infusion with fentanyl (4 mg/kg/day) significantly reduced mu-opioid receptor density by 28% without altering affinity, whereas lower infusion doses had no effect. Taken together, the present results strengthen the proposal that opioid analgesic efficacy predicts mu-opioid receptor regulation and the magnitude of tolerance.