Identifying the opportunities for sustainable bitumen production in India.

The present study assessed the environmental impacts due to bitumen production in India using life cycle assessment approach. The impacts were calculated for production of 1 t of bitumen and system boundary covered extraction of resources, processing at refinery, transportation of bitumen and storage at the production site. In this study, five scenarios were considered to estimate the impacts reduction assuming different future electricity mix and thermal energy source. Crude oil extraction phase had contributed highest (91%) followed by refinery phase (4%), then transportation (3%) and at last storage of bitumen (2%). The normalization results found that the bitumen production had highest impacts on abiotic depletion fossil and lowest impact on eutrophication. Scenario S4 had the least environmental impacts and provided the overall reductions of 33% compared to the baseline scenario. Scenario S4 reduced the impacts significantly on acidification (51%), eutrophication (30%), and human toxicity (71%), but the reductions were not significant on global warming (11%) and increased the impacts on abiotic depletion fossil (1%). The results of sensitivity analysis found that thermal energy obtained from hard coal consumed during bitumen production is the most sensitive parameter for all the impact categories. The uncertainty analysis showed that the results of this study are reliable and had standard deviation less than 5% for all the impact categories. The findings of the present study will help the decision makers and concerned authorities to reduce the environmental impacts from bitumen production in India.

A comprehensive review of human health risks of arsenic and fluoride contamination of groundwater in the South Asia region.

The present study found that ∼80 million people in India, ∼60 million people in Pakistan, ∼70 million people in Bangladesh, and ∼3 million people in Nepal are exposed to arsenic groundwater contamination above 10 µg/L, while Sri Lanka remains moderately affected. In the case of fluoride contamination, ∼120 million in India, >2 million in Pakistan, and ∼0.5 million in Sri Lanka are exposed to the risk of fluoride above 1.5 mg/L, while Bangladesh and Nepal are mildly affected. The hazard quotient (HQ) for arsenic varied from 0 to 822 in India, 0 to 33 in Pakistan, 0 to 1,051 in Bangladesh, 0 to 582 in Nepal, and 0 to 89 in Sri Lanka. The cancer risk of arsenic varied from 0 to 1.64 × 1-1 in India, 0 to 1.07 × 10-1 in Pakistan, 0 to 2.10 × 10-1 in Bangladesh, 0 to 1.16 × 10-1 in Nepal, and 0 to 1.78 × 10-2 in Sri Lanka. In the case of fluoride, the HQ ranged from 0 to 21 in India, 0 to 33 in Pakistan, 0 to 18 in Bangladesh, 0 to 10 in Nepal, and 0 to 10 in Sri Lanka. Arsenic and fluoride have adverse effects on animals, resulting in chemical poisoning and skeletal fluorosis. Adsorption and membrane filtration have demonstrated outstanding treatment outcomes.

Smart technological options in collection and transportation of municipal solid waste in urban areas: A mini review.

The rapid increase in quantities and the mismanagement of municipal solid waste (MSW) in developing countries are increasing the environmental impacts such as air, water and soil contamination. The present scenario of MSW management deals with numerous issues such as lack of technological resources, strategical management, social awareness, public participation, etc. Globally, numerous efforts in the form of new policies, schemes and regulatory acts have been made to develop a systematic collection and transportation (C&T) method using advanced, integrated technologies. However, very few studies have addressed this issue for low- and middle-income countries due to the lack of availability of reliable resources and data sets. This paper addresses the present challenges in C&T methods and highlights the application of information communication technology in monitoring, capturing, data management, planning, live tracking and communication. This systematic mini-review is based on the availability of technical resources, consumer acceptance and cost-effectiveness of different technologies in managing the processes. The study revealed that the C&T methods in most developed countries are designed based on their geographical stretch, climatic factors, waste characteristics and compatible technology, resulting in sustainable MSW management. However, developing countries have followed the same monotonous approach in managing their MSW, which fails in C&T process. The case study provides a valuable resource for researchers and policymakers to frame a better C&T process based on the recent technological interventions, infrastructure development, and social and economic status.

A critical review of the life cycle assessment studies on road pavements and road infrastructures.

In recent years, there has been a sharp rise in the number of life cycle assessment (LCA) studies related to road pavements and road infrastructures. The main aim of this study is to perform a critical analysis of various studies undertaken so far to examine goals, scopes, impact categories, life cycle phases, methods and approaches, and limitations. A total of 67 LCA studies reported in literature were analysed and categorized into four categories viz. flexible pavement; rigid pavement; flexible and rigid pavement; and road infrastructure. The analysis revealed that 80% of the studies were carried out in developed countries while just 20% of studies were from developing countries. Most of the road pavement LCA studies (∼76%) considered material and construction phase and assessed the impacts in terms of only two impact categories viz. global warming potential and energy demand. Only 10-15% of studies considered a wide range of impact categories and used commercial software such as GaBi and SimaPro for impact assessment. 19 studies were on flexible pavements, 4 on rigid pavements, 30 on both flexible and rigid pavements and 14 on infrastructure. Bridges, tunnels, drainage, lighting, and road marking were the major components of road infrastructure studied while other road infrastructures such as culverts, toll plazas, and vehicle underpasses were not included. Majority of the studies depended on secondary or background data for the development of life cycle inventory. Out of 67 studies, only 18 studies performed the sensitivity analysis while only 6 studies carried out uncertainty analysis. There is a need for inclusion of all supporting infrastructures along with road pavement, and also for paying greater attention to sensitivity and uncertainty analysis in studies pertaining to the transportation sector. During construction phase, no LCA study considered the important impacts due deforestation, defragmentation, restriction of free wildlife movement etc. Hence, future LCA road studies must evaluate the negative consequences of these as well as integrate social and economic impacts via Multi-Criteria Decision Making to make LCA a robust decision-making tool for sustainability.

Mask consumption and biomedical waste generation rate during Covid-19 pandemic: A case study of central India.

The rapid generation of biomedical waste (BMW) due to covid-19 pandemic has created burden on the existing municipal solid waste management (MSWM) system in both developed and developing countries. The substantial influx of covid patients in Maharashtra, India has influenced the pattern of BMW generation, especially for the yellow category of BMW and incineration facilities. The objective of the study was to estimate the daily face mask consumption (DFM) and BMW generation from May 2020 to August 2021 in Maharashtra, India. The study was carried out based on the confirmed covid 19 cases, population forecast, urban population (%), BMW generation rate (kg/bed/day), and so on. The data set for the each paramters were collected from web-portals, published reports based on previous studies. These data sets were further regrouped, processed and analyised using mathematical equations. The study also revealed that Mumbai, Pune, and Thane districts, India has contributed ≥ 60% of the DFM and BMW generation. It was found that the DFM by non-covid patients was higher compared to the covid patients (DCFM). Further, it was revealed that BMW generated in the months of July 2020 (152 tons/day), August 2020 (228 tons/day), September 2020 (364 tons/day), October 2020 (177 tons/day), March 2021 (405 tons/day), April 2021 (1,102 tons/day), May 2021 (705 tons/day), June 2021 (194 tons/day), and July 2021 (149 tons/day), exceeded the existing BMW treatment capcity of 132 tons/day. The sudden spike in covid-19 cases has influenced the pattern of DFM and BMW generation, espeicllay for the yellow category of BMW (BMWCY) and has increased the burden on BMW incineration facilities. The daily emission rates from BMW-incineration was in the order PM10> NO2> CO>SO2, with maximum emission of PM10 (85.61 kg of pollutant/day). The F-test was performed using one-way ANOVA to understand the influence of covid cases on daily face mask consumption. It was found that F-satistic of DCFM and BMWCY is more than the F-critical i.e., increase in covid cases had a significant effect on mass consumption rate and BMW generation.

Kinetic study of nutrients removal from municipal wastewater by Chlorella vulgaris in photobioreactor supplied with CO2-enriched air.

The microalgae Chlorella vulgaris ATCC 13482 was used in the present study for municipal wastewater treatment. Batch experiments were performed in bubble column photobioreactors of 7 L working volume maintained at 25 ± 2°C and 14 h/10 h of photo and dark cycle. The treatment process was enhanced by using CO2-augmented air (5% CO2 v/v) supply into the microalgal culture in comparison to the use of normal air (0.03% CO2 v/v). For a period of 7 days, C. vulgaris effected maximum removals of 74.4% soluble fraction of chemical oxygen demand, 72% ammonia (NH4-N), 60% nitrate (NO3-N) and 81.93% orthophosphate (PO4-P) with use of normal air, whereas 84.6% sCOD, 88% NH4-N, 72% NO3-N and 92.8% PO4-P removals, respectively, with use of 5% CO2/air supply. Using kinetic study data, the specific rates of ammonia and phosphate uptake (qammonia and qphosphate) by C. vulgaris at 5% CO2/air supply were found to be 2.41 and 0.85 d-1, respectively. Using the algal remediation technology, nitrogen-phosphorus-potassium recovery from sewage treatment plant of 37.5 million litres per day wastewater influent capacity was calculated to be ∼298.5, 55.4 and 83.7 kg d-1, respectively.

Estimating premature mortality attributable to PM2.5 exposure and benefit of air pollution control policies in China for 2020.

In past decade of rapid industrial development and urbanization, China has witnessed increasingly persistent severe haze and smog episodes, posing serious health hazards to the Chinese population, especially in densely populated cities. Quantification of health impacts attributable to PM2.5 (particulates with aerodynamic diameter≤2.5µm) has important policy implications to tackle air pollution. The Chinese national monitoring network has recently included direct measurements of ground level PM2.5, providing a potentially more reliable source for exposure assessment. This study reports PM2.5-related long-term mortality of year 2015 in 161 cities of nine regions across China using integrated exposure risk (IER) model for PM2.5 exposure-response functions (ERF). It further provides an estimate of the potential health benefits by year 2020 with a realization of the goals of Air Pollution Prevention and Control Action Plan (APPCAP) and the three interim targets (ITs) and Air Quality Guidelines (AQG) for PM2.5 by the World Health Organization (WHO). PM2.5-related premature mortality in 161 cities was 652 thousand, about 6.92% of total deaths in China during year 2015. Among all premature deaths, contributions of cerebrovascular disease (stroke), ischemic heart disease (IHD), chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD), lung cancer (LC) and acute lower respiratory infections (ALRIs) were 51.70, 26.26, 11.77, 9.45 and 0.82%, respectively. The premature mortality in densely populated cities is very high, such as Tianjin (12,533/year), Beijing (18,817/year), Baoding (10,932/year), Shanghai (18,679/year), Chongqing (23,561/year), Chengdu (11,809/year), Harbin (9037/year) and Linyi (9141/year). The potential health benefits will be 4.4, 16.2, 34.5, 63.6 and 81.5% of the total present premature mortality when PM2.5 concentrations in China meet the APPCAP, WHO IT-1, IT-2, IT-3 and AQG respectively, by the year 2020. In the current situation, by the end of year 2030, even if Chines government fulfills its own target to meet national ambient air quality standard of PM2.5 (35µg/m3), total premature mortality attributable to PM2.5 will be 574 thousand across 161 cities. The present methodology will greatly help policy makers and pollution control authorities to further analyze cost and benefits of air pollution management programs in China.

Carbon-dioxide biofixation and phycoremediation of municipal wastewater using Chlorella vulgaris and Scenedesmus obliquus.

The pure cultures of microalgae Chlorella vulgaris ATCC 13482 and Scenedesmus obliquus FACHB 417 were grown in municipal wastewater in 7-L airlift bubble column photobioreactor supplied with 5% CO2/air (v/v). Batch experiments were conducted at 25 °C with 14-h light/10-h dark cycle for a period of 10 days. The CO2 capture efficiencies for both the microalgae were monitored in terms of their respective biomass productivities, carbon contents, and CO2 consumption rates. In the present study, the initial concentration of ammonia (43.7 mg L-1) was decreased to 2.9 and 3.7 mg L-1 by C. vulgaris and S. obliquus, respectively. And, the initial concentration of phosphate (18.5 mg L-1) was decreased to 1.1 and 1.6 mg L-1 by C. vulgaris and S. obliquus, respectively. CO2 biofixation rates by C. vulgaris and S. obliquus, cultivated in municipal wastewater, were calculated to be 140.91 and 129.82 mg L-1 day-1, respectively. The findings from the present study highlight the use of microalgae for wastewater treatment along with CO2 uptake and biomass utilization for pilot scale production of biodiesel, biogas, feed supplements for animals, etc., thus minimizing the production costs.

Burden of disease attributed to ambient PM2.5 and PM10 exposure in 190 cities in China.

Particulate air pollution is becoming a serious public health concern in urban cities of China. Association of disability-adjusted life years (DALYs) and economic loss with air pollution-related health effects demand quantitative analysis for correctional measures in air quality. This study applies an epidemiology-based exposure-response function to obtain the quantitative estimate of health impact of particulate matter PM2.5 and PM10 across 190 cities of China during years 2014-2015. The annual average concentration of PM2.5 and PM10 is 57 ± 18 µg/m3 (ranging from 18 to 119 µg/m3) and 97.7 ± 34.2 µg/m3 (ranging from 33.5 to 252.8 µg/m3), respectively. Based on the present study, the total estimated annual premature mortality due to PM2.5 is 722,370 [95% confidence interval (CI) = 322,716-987,519], 79% of which accounts for adult cerebrovascular disease (stroke) and ischemic heart disease (IHD). The premature mortality in megacities is very high, such as Chongqing (25,162/year), Beijing (19,702/year), Shanghai (19,617/year), Tianjin (13,726/year), and Chengdu (12,356/year). PM10 pollution has caused 1,491,774 (95% CI = 972,770-1,960,303) premature deaths (age >30) in China. Further, 3,614,064 cases of chronic bronchitis (CB); 13,759,894 cases of asthma attack among all ages; 191,709 COPD-related hospital admission (HA) cases; 499,048 respiratory-related HA; 357,816 cerebrovascular HA; and 308,129 cardiovascular-related HA due to PM10 pollution have been estimated during 2014-2015. Chongqing, Beijing, Baoding, Tianjin, and Shijiazhuang are the top five contributors to pollution-related mortality, accounting for 3.10, 2.71, 2.49, 2.20, and 2.02%, respectively, of the total deaths caused by PM10 pollution. The total DALYs associated with PM2.5 and PM10 pollution in China is 7.2 and 20.66 million in 2014-2015, and mortality and chronic bronchitis shared about 93.3% of the total DALYs for PM10. During this period, the economic cost of health impact due to PM10 is approximately US$304,122 million, which accounts for about 2.94% of China's gross domestic product (GDP). Megacities are expected to contribute relatively more to the total costs. The present methodology could be used as a tool to help policy makers and pollution control board authorities, to further analyze costs and benefits of air pollution management programs in China.

Disability-adjusted life years and economic cost assessment of the health effects related to PM2.5 and PM10 pollution in Mumbai and Delhi, in India from 1991 to 2015.

Particulate air pollution is becoming a serious public health concern in urban cities in India due to air pollution-related health effects associated with disability-adjusted life years (DALYs) and economic loss. To obtain the quantitative result of health impact of particulate matter (PM) in most populated Mumbai City and most polluted Delhi City in India, an epidemiology-based exposure-response function has been used to calculate the attributable number of mortality and morbidity cases from 1991 to 2015 in a 5-year interval and the subsequent DALYs, and economic cost is estimated of the health damage based on unit values of the health outcomes. Here, we report the attributable number of mortality due to PM10 in Mumbai and Delhi increased to 32,014 and 48,651 in 2015 compared with 19,291 and 19,716 in year 1995. And annual average mortality due to PM2.5 in Mumbai and Delhi was 10,880 and 10,900. Premature cerebrovascular disease (CEV), ischemic heart disease (IHD), and chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD) causes are about 35.3, 33.3, and 22.9% of PM2.5-attributable mortalities. Total DALYs due to PM10 increased from 0.34 million to 0.51 million in Mumbai and 0.34 million to 0.75 million in Delhi from average year 1995 to 2015. Among all health outcomes, mortality and chronic bronchitis shared about 95% of the total DALYs. Due to PM10, the estimated total economic cost at constant price year 2005 US$ increased from 2680.87 million to 4269.60 million for Mumbai City and 2714.10 million to 6394.74 million for Delhi City, from 1995 to 2015, and the total amount accounting about 1.01% of India's gross domestic product (GDP). A crucial presumption is that in 2030, PM10 levels would have to decline by 44% (Mumbai) and 67% (Delhi) absolutely to maintain the same health outcomes in year 2015 levels. The results will help policy makers from pollution control board for further cost-benefit analyses of air pollution management programs in Mumbai and Delhi.

Vehicular pollution modeling using the operational street pollution model (OSPM) for Chembur, Mumbai (India).

Megacities in India such as Mumbai and Delhi are among the most polluted places in the world. In the present study, the widely used operational street pollution model (OSPM) is applied for assessing pollutant loads in the street canyons of Chembur, a suburban area just outside Mumbai city. Chembur is both industrialized and highly congested with vehicles. There are six major street canyons in this area, for which modeling has been carried out for NOx and particulate matter (PM). The vehicle emission factors for Indian cities have been developed by Automotive Research Association of India (ARAI) for PM, not specifically for PM10 or PM2.5. The model has been applied for 4 days of winter season and for the whole year to see the difference of effect of meteorology. The urban background concentrations have been obtained from an air quality monitoring station. Results have been compared with measured concentrations from the routine monitoring performed in Mumbai. NOx emissions originate mainly from vehicles which are ground-level sources and are emitting close to where people live. Therefore, those emissions are highly relevant. The modeled NOx concentration compared satisfactorily with observed data. However, this was not the case for PM, most likely because the emission inventory did not contain emission terms due to resuspended particulate matter.

Air quality mapping using GIS and economic evaluation of health impact for Mumbai City, India.

UNLABELLED: Mumbai, a highly populated city in India, has been selected for air quality mapping and assessment of health impact using monitored air quality data. Air quality monitoring networks in Mumbai are operated by National Environment Engineering Research Institute (NEERI), Maharashtra Pollution Control Board (MPCB), and Brihanmumbai Municipal Corporation (BMC). A monitoring station represents air quality at a particular location, while we need spatial variation for air quality management. Here, air quality monitored data of NEERI and BMC were spatially interpolated using various inbuilt interpolation techniques of ArcGIS. Inverse distance weighting (IDW), Kriging (spherical and Gaussian), and spline techniques have been applied for spatial interpolation for this study. The interpolated results of air pollutants sulfur dioxide (SO2), nitrogen dioxide (NO2) and suspended particulate matter (SPM) were compared with air quality data of MPCB in the same region. Comparison of results showed good agreement for predicted values using IDW and Kriging with observed data. Subsequently, health impact assessment of a ward was carried out based on total population of the ward and air quality monitored data within the ward. Finally, health cost within a ward was estimated on the basis of exposed population. This study helps to estimate the valuation of health damage due to air pollution. IMPLICATIONS: Operating more air quality monitoring stations for measurement of air quality is highly resource intensive in terms of time and cost. The appropriate spatial interpolation techniques can be used to estimate concentration where air quality monitoring stations are not available. Further, health impact assessment for the population of the city and estimation of economic cost of health damage due to ambient air quality can help to make rational control strategies for environmental management. The total health cost for Mumbai city for the year 2012, with a population of 12.4 million, was estimated as USD8000 million.