[Distribution of Yeast Species Isolated from Blood Cultures for a Six Year Period in Turkey: a Multicentre Study]. / Türkiye'de Alti Yillik Zaman Dilimi Içerisinde Kan Kültürlerinden Soyutlanan Maya Mantarlarinin Tür Dagilimi: Çok Merkezli Bir Çalisma.

Bloodstream infections due to yeast species especially Candida spp. have been reported to be important healthcare associated infections with high mortality and morbidity rates. Candidemia causes prolonged hospital stays as well as increased cost. In order to prevent or treat these life-threatening bloodstream infections successfully, nationwide epidemiological data should be available about the etiological agents of these infections. Multi-centre national epidemiological data on yeast bloodstream infections in Turkey is lacking. A retrospective study was designed and data from six different centres in Turkey between 2011 and 2016 years were gathered and analysed for the distribution and frequency of yeast species in order to assist clinicians in their choice of early and appropriate antifungal therapy. All laboratories used automated blood culture systems for the isolation of blood strains. All the participating centres performed the identification of their own isolates by conventional methods using germ tube test, morphology on corn meal agar with tween 80 and chromogenic media and the identification was confirmed by API 20C AUX, API ID 32C or matrix-assisted laser desorption/ionization time of flight mass spectrophotometry (MALDI-TOF MS) systems. The analysis of the results was performed on the basis of intensive care units (ICUs), other inpatient clinics (OICs) and totally all clinics (ACs). Totally 2547 yeast isolates were determined from six participating centres during six years. According to the total ACs results, Candida albicans was the most prevalent species (43.1%), followed by Candida parapsilosis complex (29.1%), Candida glabrata (10.1%), Candida tropicalis (7.5%), Candida krusei (2.4%) and Candida kefyr (1.6%) and the remaining (6.2%) of them consisted of other yeast species. The distribution of the Candida species did not show statistically significant difference between the years, however the increase of C.parapsilosis complex in 2016 was statistically significant, (p= 0.02). During the study period, totally 1054 yeast isolates were obtained from the ICUs of the centres. C.albicans predominated with 476 (45.2%) isolates and C.parapsilosis complex (28.7%), C.glabrata (10.7%) and C.tropicalis (7.3%) were the other leading species in ICUs. Among 1493 isolates of the OICs of six centres participated in the study, C.albicans was the most prevalent species with 622 (41.7%) isolates. The other frequent species of OICs were C.parapsilosis complex (29.5%), C.glabrata (9.6%) and C.tropicalis (7.6%) resembling ICU results. It can be concluded that C.albicans is still the leading cause of bloodstream infections in the six different centres located in various geographical areas of Turkey.

First multicentre report of in vitro resistance rates in candidaemia isolates in Turkey.

OBJECTIVES: This study investigated the antifungal resistance rates of isolates from candidaemia patients in 12 tertiary-care centres in Turkey. METHODS: A total of 1991 Candida spp. isolates from 12 centres isolated from 1997-2017 were included in the study. Species/species complex (SC) identification was performed using conventional methods in all centres, occasionally accompanied by MALDI-TOF/MS. Antifungal susceptibility testing was performed for amphotericin B, fluconazole, itraconazole, posaconazole, voriconazole and micafungin (as echinocandin class representative) using the CLSI microdilution method. Resistance rates were determined according to CLSI clinical breakpoints (CBPs). For drugs and species with undetermined CBPs, epidemiological cut-off values were used for wild-type (WT)/non-WT categorisation. RESULTS: No or low rates of resistance were detected in general for tested Candida spp. isolates. Specifically, overall resistance to fluconazole in isolates of Candida parapsilosis SC and Candida glabrata SC were 7.7% and 0.9%, respectively. Resistance rates for C. parapsilosis SC varied extensively from one center to other (0-47.1%). Importantly, no echinocandin resistance was detected. Rates of non-WT isolates were also generally low: fluconazole against Candida lusitaniae, 4.3%; posaconazole against C. parapsilosis SC, 3.5%; posaconazole against Candida krusei, 1.9%; and voriconazole against C. glabrata SC, 0.5%. CONCLUSION: This is the first multicentre report of antifungal resistance rates among candidaemia isolates in Turkey, suggesting low resistance rates in general. Due to varying rates of fluconazole resistance in C. parapsilosis SC isolates that was detected at remarkably high levels in some centres, further studies are warranted to explore the source, clonal relatedness and resistance mechanisms of the isolates.

[Investigation of mutations in transcription factors of efflux pump genes in fluconazole-resistant Candida albicans strains overexpressing the efflux pumps]. / Atilim pompalarini fazla eksprese eden flukonazole dirençli Candida albicans suslarinda bu genlerin transkripsiyon faktörlerindeki mutasyonlarin arastirilmasi.

In recent years, a significant rise in the number of immunocompromised patients have been observed due to cancer chemotherapy, organ transplantation and HIV infection. As a result of this, the frequency of Candida albicans infections in the clinics have been increased. Fluconazole, as being a well tolerated, easy to use drug with minor side effects, is often the first choice antifungal agent for this patient group, both for therapy and prophylaxis. Especially the long-term use of this drug, causes the selection of resistant strains and leads to the development of fluconazole resistance. The most frequently observed resistance mechanism against fluconazole in C.albicans strains is the transportation of the drug out of the cell via efflux pumps. The efflux pumps mainly involved are Cdr1, Cdr2 ve Mdr1 encoded by CDR1, CDR2 and MDR1 genes. It has been shown that, the overexpression of these efflux pump genes was caused by functional mutations in TAC1 and MRR1 genes which encode the transcription factors Tac1p and Mrr1p. This study was aimed to analyze TAC1 and MRR1 genes of 15 C.albicans strains which consist of six fluconazole-susceptible, four susceptible with trailing effect and five fluconazole-resistant isolates plus one resistant strain (DSY292), known to overexpress Mdr1 efflux pump due to P683H mutation in MRR1 gene and one fluconazole-sensitive ATCC 14053 C.albicans strain in terms of mutations with polymerase chain reaction and sequence analysis. Two of the fluconazole-resistant isolates which had overexpression of Cdr1 and Cdr2 pumps known to have overexpression of TAC1 gene, revealed R673Q and A736V mutations. A P683H point mutation, that overexpressed the Mdr1 pump was detected in a fluconazole-resistant strain, which was known to cause MRR1 overexpression. In conclusion, mutations in the transcription factors of the efflux pump genes may play an important role in the resistance against fluconazole among our selected C.albicans strains.

[Investigation of the expression levels of efflux pumps in fluconazole-resistant Candida albicans isolates]. / Flukonazole dirençli Candida albicans izolatlarinda atim pompa ekspresyonlarinin arastirilmasi

Widespread and repeated use of fluconazole in the prophylaxis and therapy resulted in resistance among Candida strains. Investigation of the expression of efflux pump encoding genes was aimed in fluconazole-resistant and -susceptible C.albicans isolates in order to determine the role of this mechanism in fluconazole resistance. Five fluconazole-resistant, six -susceptible and four trailing effect showing susceptible C.albicans isolates were included in the study. The MIC values of fluconazole and other antifungal agents were determined by the microdilution method. The fluconazole MIC values of the fluconazole-resistant strains were also studied by E-test performed on yeast extract peptone dextrose agar with and without cyclosporin A. The expression levels of CDR1, CDR2 and MDR1 transcripts were determined by real-time PCR method. The expression of these genes was normalized with their ACT1 levels and compared with the fluconazole-susceptible C.albicans ATCC 14053 strain. It was detected that all strains were susceptible to amphotericin B and all except one strain were also susceptible to clotrimazole. Three out of five fluconazole-resistant strains and three out of four trailing effect showing susceptible strains were resistant to 5-flucytosine, and all except one susceptible strains were found as intermediate to 5-flucytosine. All except one fluconazole-resistant strains were determined as resistant to itraconazole and ketoconazole, and had miconazole MIC values of ≥ 64 µg/ml. All fluconazole-susceptible isolates were detected to be susceptible to ketoconazole and dose dependent susceptible to itraconazole. Fluconazole-resistant and -susceptible strains were determined as susceptible to voriconazole. Out of five fluconazole-resistant isolates, two strains overexpressed high levels and three strains overexpressed mild levels of CDR1/2; one strain overexpressed high levels and three strains overexpressed low levels of MDR1 in comparison to C.albicans ATCC 14053 control strain. It was observed that CDR1, CDR2 and MDR1 gene expression levels were mild in strains showing trailing effect except one which highly expressed MDR1, while susceptible isolates except three expressed efflux pump genes at low levels. It was determined that the expression levels of CDR1 and CDR2 genes for the same strain were in parallel for all isolates. It can be concluded that overexpression of efflux pump genes is an important mechanism of resistance in fluconazole-resistant C.albicans isolates.