Seasonality in urinary and household salt iodine content among pregnant and lactating women of the plains of Nepal.

OBJECTIVE: To determine the extent and causes of iodine deficiency among women during pregnancy and lactation in the southeastern plains of Nepal. DESIGN, SETTING AND SUBJECTS: Urinary iodine (UI) was assessed as an indicator of iodine status in spot urine samples of women participating in a field trial in three rural communities in the plains of southeastern Nepal. Samples were collected during pregnancy (n=1021) and during lactation at 3-4 months postpartum (n=1028) at a central clinic; 613 women were assessed at both times. Salt iodine (SI) content was assessed semiquantitatively at 6-7 months postpartum in households (n=1572). RESULTS: During pregnancy and lactation, median UI concentrations were 0.756 and 0.483 micromol/l, respectively, indicating mild iodine deficiency. UI and SI concentrations covaried markedly by season and were highest during hot, dry, premonsoon months and lowest during and following the humid monsoon season. Within women who contributed urine samples during both pregnancy and the postpartum period, iodine status determined by UI was not correlated. The percentage of households with adequately iodized salt (30 ppm) ranged from 85 to 44% from the hot, dry to the humid seasons, respectively. CONCLUSIONS: In the rural southern plains of Nepal, iodine deficiency remains a mild-to-moderate public health problem among pregnant and lactating women despite the availability of iodized salt. Marked seasonality in SI content may account for the lack of intraindividual correlation between maternal iodine status during pregnancy and postpartum periods and contribute to periodicity in the risk of iodine deficiency.

Determinants of low birth weight among HIV-infected pregnant women in Tanzania.

BACKGROUND: Low birth weight (LBW) increases the risk of infant death, but little is known about its causes among HIV-infected populations in sub-Saharan Africa. OBJECTIVE: We assessed sociodemographic, nutritional, immunologic, parasitic, and infant risk factors for birth weight, LBW, and small-for-gestational-age (SGA) status in a cohort of 822 HIV-positive women enrolled in a clinical trial of vitamin supplementation and pregnancy outcomes in Dar es Salaam, Tanzania. DESIGN: Women were enrolled at prenatal care clinics during their second trimester, at which time blood, stool, urine, and genital specimens were collected, and anthropometric measurements and sociodemographic data were recorded. Birth weight was measured at hospital delivery. RESULTS: The mean (+/-SD) birth weight was 3015 +/- 508 g, 11.1% of newborns weighed <2500 g (LBW), and 11.5% were SGA. In multivariate analyses, maternal weight at enrollment and a low CD8 cell count were inversely associated with LBW. Advanced-stage HIV disease, previous history of preterm birth, Plasmodium falciparum malaria, and any helmintic infection were associated with higher risk of LBW. The intestinal parasites Entamoeba histolytica and Strongyloides stercoralis were predictors of LBW despite their low prevalence in the cohort. In a multivariate-adjusted linear regression model, BMI, midupper arm circumference, a CD4 cell count <200 x 10(6) cells/L (200 cells/mm(3)), primiparity, maternal literacy, and infant HIV infection at birth were significantly associated with birth weight in addition to risk factors included in the LBW model. Determinants of SGA included maternal weight, low serum vitamin E concentration, candidiasis, malaria, and infant HIV infection at birth. CONCLUSION: Prevention of HIV disease progression and vertical transmission, improved nutritional status, and better management of malaria and intestinal parasitic infections are likely to reduce the incidence of LBW in Tanzania.

Circulating levels of retinol, tocopherol and carotenoid in Nepali pregnant and postpartum women following long-term beta-carotene and vitamin A supplementation.

OBJECTIVE: To characterize circulating carotenoid and tocopherol levels in Nepali women during pregnancy and post-partum and to determine the effects of beta-carotene and vitamin A supplementation on their concentration in serum. DESIGN: Randomized community supplementation trial. SETTING: The study was carried out from 1994 to 1997 in the Southern, rural plains District of Sarlahi, Nepal. SUBJECTS: A total of 1431 married women had an ascertained pregnancy, of whom 1186 (83%) provided an analyzable serum sample during pregnancy; 1098 (77%) provided an analyzable 3-4 months post-partum serum sample. INTERVENTIONS: Women received a weekly dose of vitamin A (7000 microg RE), beta-carotene (42 mg) or placebo before, during and after pregnancy. Serum was analyzed for retinol, alpha-tocopherol, gamma-tocopherol, beta-carotene, alpha-carotene, lycopene, lutein + zeaxanthin, and beta-cryptoxanthin concentrations during mid-pregnancy and at approximately 3 months post-partum. RESULTS: Compared to placebo, serum retinol, beta-carotene, gamma-tocopherol, beta-cryptoxanthin and lutein + zeaxanthin concentrations were higher among beta-carotene recipients during pregnancy and, except for beta-cryptoxanthin, at postpartum. In the vitamin A group, serum retinol and beta-cryptoxanthin were higher during pregnancy, and retinol and gamma-tocopherol higher at postpartum. Lutein + zeaxanthin was the dominant carotenoid, regardless of treatment group, followed by serum beta-carotene. Serum lycopene level was lowest, and very low compared to the US population. Serum retinol was higher, and carotenoid and alpha-tocopherol lower, at postpartum than during pregnancy in all groups. CONCLUSIONS: Pregnant and lactating Nepali women have lower serum carotenoid and tocopherol levels than well-nourished populations. beta-carotene supplementation appeared to increase levels of tocopherol and other carotenoids in this population.

Hookworms, malaria and vitamin A deficiency contribute to anemia and iron deficiency among pregnant women in the plains of Nepal.

Anemia and iron deficiency during pregnancy are prevalent in developing countries, but their causes are not always known. We assessed the prevalence and severity of anemia and iron deficiency and their association with helminths, malaria and vitamin A deficiency in a community-based sample of 336 pregnant women in the plains of Nepal. Hemoglobin, erythrocyte protoporphyrin (EP) and serum ferritin were assessed in venous blood samples. Overall, 72.6% of women were anemic (hemoglobin < 110 g/L), 19.9% had moderate to severe anemia (hemoglobin < 90 g/L) and 80.6% had iron deficiency (EP > 70 micromol/mol heme or serum ferritin < 10 microg/L). Eighty-eight percent of cases of anemia were associated with iron deficiency. More than half of the women (54.2%) had a low serum retinol concentration (<1.05 micromol/L), 74.2% were infected with hookworms and 19.8% had Plasmodium vivax malaria parasitemia. Hemoglobin, EP and serum ferritin concentrations were significantly worse and the prevalence of anemia, elevated EP and low serum ferritin was increased with increasing intensity of hookworm infection. Hookworm infection intensity was the strongest predictor of iron status, especially of depleted iron stores. Low serum retinol was most strongly associated with mild anemia, whereas P. vivax malaria and hookworm infection intensity were stronger predictors of moderate to severe anemia. These findings reinforce the need for programs to consider reducing the prevalence of hookworm, malaria infection and vitamin A deficiency where indicated, in addition to providing iron supplements to effectively control anemia.

Responsiveness of dark-adaptation threshold to vitamin A and beta-carotene supplementation in pregnant and lactating women in Nepal.

BACKGROUND: Impaired dark adaptation occurs commonly in vitamin A deficiency. OBJECTIVE: We sought to examine the responsiveness of dark-adaptation threshold to vitamin A and beta-carotene supplementation in Nepali women. DESIGN: The dark-adapted pupillary response was tested in 298 pregnant women aged 15-45 y in a placebo-controlled trial of vitamin A and beta-carotene; 131 of these women were also tested at 3 mo postpartum. Results were compared with those for 100 nonpregnant US women of similar age. The amount of light required for pupillary constriction was recorded after bleaching and dark adaptation. RESULTS: Pregnant women receiving vitamin A had better dark-adaptation thresholds (-1.24 log cd/m(2)) than did those receiving placebo (-1.11 log cd/m(2); P: = 0. 03) or beta-carotene (-1.13 log cd/m(2); P: = 0.05) (t tests with Bonferroni correction). Dark-adaptation threshold was associated with serum retinol concentration in pregnant women receiving placebo (P: = 0.001) and in those receiving beta-carotene (P: = 0.003) but not in those receiving vitamin A. Among women receiving placebo, mean dark-adaptation thresholds were better during the first trimester (-1.23 log cd/m(2)) than during the second and third trimesters (-1.03 log cd/m(2); P: = 0.02, t test). The mean threshold of nonpregnant US women (-1.35 log cd/m(2)) was better than that of all 3 Nepali groups (P: < 0.001, t test, for all 3 groups). CONCLUSIONS: During pregnancy, pupillary dark adaptation was strongly associated with serum retinol concentration and improved significantly in response to vitamin A supplementation. This noninvasive testing technique is a valid indicator of population vitamin A status in women of reproductive age.

Clinical pallor is useful to detect severe anemia in populations where anemia is prevalent and severe.

Clinical pallor is recommended as a simple way to detect severe anemia, but more data are needed on its accuracy and usefulness when assessed by nonphysicians in diverse settings. We measured hemoglobin and trained non-physician health workers to assess clinical pallor of the conjunctiva, palm and nail beds in five population samples in Nepal and Zanzibar, where severe anemia is common. In total, 5,760 individuals were examined, 3,072 of whom were anemic and 192 of whom had severe anemia (hemoglobin <70 g/L). The prevalence of pallor did not correspond to the prevalence of anemia or severe anemia in the groups studied. However, in all studies, pallor at each anatomical site was associated with a significantly lower hemoglobin concentration. The relative performance of different anatomical sites was not consistent among studies, and we recommend that multiple sites be assessed. Pallor at any of the three sites detected severe anemia with >84% specificity. However, the sensitivity varied from 81% in Nepalese postpartum women to 29% in Zanzibari preschoolers in 1996. Overall estimates for sensitivity and specificity were 50 and 92%, respectively. Although imperfect, use of pallor to screen and treat severe anemia by primary care providers is feasible and worthwhile where severe anemia is common. Usually, the majority of persons with severe anemia will be detected at practically no cost. Many people who are not severely anemic will also receive treatment, but the costs of this error are low compared to the benefits.

Ancylostoma duodenale is responsible for hookworm infections among pregnant women in the rural plains of Nepal.

Fecal specimens from 292 pregnant women (ages 15-40 yr) and 129 infants (ages 10-20 wk) were examined for helminth eggs by the Kato-Katz method and cultured for helminth larvae identification using a modified Harada Mori method. These specimens were collected from June 1995 through July 1996 in Sarlahi District in the southern rural plains of Nepal. Among pregnant women, the prevalence of helminth infection by the Kato-Katz method was 78.8%, 56.2%, and 7.9% for hookworm, Ascaris lumbricoides, and Trichuris trichiura, respectively. Using the modified Harada-Mori method, 66.1% and 2.0% of women's fecal cultures were positive for hookworm and Strongyloides stercoralis, respectively. All of the cultured hookworm larvae were identified as Ancylostoma duodenale. Among infants, 1 specimen was positive for hookworm and 1 for A. lumbricoides using the Kato-Katz method. The modified Harada Mori method detected no larvae in specimens from infants. There was 81.8% agreement between the 2 methods for the detection of hookworm infection. Ancylostoma duodenale is endemic in this study population and highly prevalent in pregnant women.

Hookworm control as a strategy to prevent iron deficiency.

The hookworms Necator americanus and Ancylostoma duodenale infect approximately 1 billion people worldwide. The prevalence of hookworm infection increases with age in children, typically reaching a plateau in late adolescence, whereas the intensity of infection may continue to increase throughout adulthood. Hookworms cause intestinal blood loss in amounts proportional to the number of adult worms in the gut. The relationship between hookworm infection intensity and hemoglobin concentration is evident in epidemiologic studies, but may be apparent only above a threshold worm burden that is related to the iron stores of the population. Current hookworm control efforts are focused on reducing infection load and transmission potential through periodic anthelminthic chemotherapy. Several controlled trials have demonstrated a positive impact of anthelminthic treatment on hemoglobin levels, with best results obtained in settings where iron intakes were also increased. Evidence suggests that anthelminthic programs will have modest impacts on iron deficiency anemia in the short term, with greater impacts on more severe anemia. Hookworms are an important cause of anemia in women, who are often overlooked by current helminth control programs. Current WHO recommendations for use of anthelminthics in schoolchildren and women are reviewed. There is a need to clarify whether hookworms are an important etiology of iron deficiency anemia in preschool children.