Moderate Exercise Modulates Inflammatory Responses and Improves Survival in a Murine Model of Acute Pneumonia.

OBJECTIVES: An association between physical inactivity and worse outcome during infectious disease has been reported. The effect of moderate exercise preconditioning on the immune response during an acute pneumonia in a murine model was evaluated. SETTING: Laboratory experiments. SUBJECTS: C57BL6/j male mice. INTERVENTIONS: Six-week-old C57BL/6J mice were divided in two groups: an exercise group and a control group. In the exercise group, a moderate, progressive, and standardized physical exercise was applied for 8 weeks. It consisted in a daily treadmill training lasting 60 minutes and with an intensity of 65% of the maximal theoretical oxygen uptake. Usual housing recommendation were applied in the control group during the same period. After 8 weeks, pneumonia was induced in both groups by intratracheal instillation of a fixed concentration of a Klebsiella pneumoniae (5 × 103 colony-forming unit) solution. MEASUREMENTS AND MAIN RESULTS: Mice preconditioned by physical exercise had a less sever onset of pneumonia as shown by a significant decrease of the Mouse Clinical Assessment Severity Score and had a significantly lower mortality compared with the control group (27% vs. 83%; p = 0.019). In the exercise group, we observed a significantly earlier but transient recruitment of inflammatory immune cells with a significant increase of neutrophils, CD4+ cells and interstitial macrophages counts compared with control group. Lung tumor necrosis factor-α, interleukin (IL)-1ß, IL-6, and IL-10 were significantly decreased at 48 hours after pneumonia induction in the exercise group compared with the control group. CONCLUSIONS: In our model, preconditioning by moderate physical exercise improves outcome by reducing the severity of acute pneumonia with an increased but transient activation of the innate immune response.

The Potential Effect of Polysaccharides Extracted from Red Alga Gelidium spinosum against Intestinal Epithelial Cell Apoptosis.

Gut injury is a severe and unpredictable illness related to the increased cell death of intestinal epithelial cells (IECs). Excessive IEC apoptotic cell death during the pathophysiological state entails chronic inflammatory diseases. This investigation was undertaken to assess the cytoprotective action and underlying mechanisms of polysaccharides from Tunisian red alga, Gelidium spinosum (PSGS), on H2O2-induced toxicity in IEC-6 cells. The cell viability test was initially carried out to screen out convenient concentrations of H2O2 and PSGS. Subsequently, cells were exposed to 40 µM H2O2 over 4 h in the presence or absence of PSGS. Findings revealed that H2O2 caused oxidative stress manifested by over 70% cell mortality, disturbed the antioxidant defense, and increased the apoptotic rate in IEC-6 cells (32% than normal cells). Pretreatment of PSGS restored cell viability, especially when used at 150 µg/mL and normal cell morphology in H2O2-callenged cells. PSGS also equally sustained superoxide dismutase and catalase activities and hindered the apoptosis induced by H2O2. This protection mechanism of PSGS may be associated with its structural composition. The ultraviolet visible spectrum, Fourier-transformed infrared (FT-IR), X-ray diffraction (XRD), and high-performance liquid chromatography (HPLC) demonstrated that PSGS is mainly sulfated polysaccharides. Eventually, this research work provides a deeper insight into the protective functions and enhances the investment of natural resources in handling intestinal diseases.

Cardiotoxicity and myocardial infarction-associated DNA damage induced by thiamethoxam in vitro and in vivo: Protective role of Trigonella foenum-graecum seed-derived polysaccharide.

The risk of pesticides on the human health and environment has drawn increasing attention. Today, new tools are developed to reduce pesticide adverse effects. This study aimed to evaluate the toxicity induced by, thiamethoxam (TMX), and the cytoprotective effect of a novel polysaccharide, named fenugreek seed water polysaccharide (FWEP) in vitro using H9c2 cardiomyoblastes and in vivo using Wistar rat model. Animals were assigned into four groups per eight rats each: group 1 served as a control group, group 2 received TMX, group 3, and group 4 received both FWEP and TMX tested at two doses (100 and 200 mg/kg, respectively). Regarding the in vitro study, our results demonstrated that TMX induced a decrease in H9c2 cell viability up to 70% with the highest concentration. In vivo, TMX injection induced marked heart damage noted by a significant increase in plasma lactate dehydrogenase, creatine phosphokinase, troponin-T, aspartate amino transferase activities, cholesterol, and triglyceride levels. Concomitant alterations in cardiac antioxidant defense system revealed depletion in the levels of glutathione and non-protein thiol and an increase in the activity of superoxide dismutase, catalase, and glutathione peroxidase. Similarly, a significant increase in heart lipid, malondialdehyde, advanced oxidation protein product and in protein carbonyls levels was also noted. In addition, heart tissues histo-architecture displayed major presence of apoptosis and necrosis as confirmed by DNA degradation. However, supplementation with FWEP alleviated heart oxidative damage and genotoxicity. In this manner, ABTS radical-scavenging activity, linoleic acid oxidation tests and heart genomic and DNA nicking assay had proved FWEP strong antioxidant potential. In conclusion, FWEP provided significant protection against TMX-induced heart injury, and could be a useful and efficient agent against cardiotoxicity and atherosclerosis.

Hypolipidemic and cardioprotective effects of Ulva lactuca ethanolic extract in hypercholesterolemic mice.

CONTEXT: Hypercholesterolemia has significant cardiac consequences, since it is among the major risk factors of ischemic heart diseases. OBJECTIVE: The aim was searching the cardioprotective effect of chemical constituents from the sea lettuce Ulva lactuca upon hypercholesterolemic regime in mice. MATERIAL AND METHODS: Mice were randomly divided into three groups: untreated group, hypercholesterolemic group, and mice receiving 1% cholesterol associated with U. lactuca ethanolic extract. RESULTS: In vitro study demonstrated that algal extract has antioxidant efficacy attributable to the presence of phenolic compounds. Additionally, the alga alleviated cardiotoxicity, as shown by the improvement of haematological parameters, white cell viability, heart oxidative stress, plasma biochemical parameters and index of atherogenesis. Gene expression of the proinflammatory cytokines TNF-α, IL-1ß and IL-6 significantly decreased in the heart of U. lactuca supplemented hypercholesterolemic animals. CONCLUSION: It was established that the green alga, thanks to its bioactive compounds, effectively counteracts cardiotoxic effects of hypercholesterolemic regime.

Tamarix gallica phenolics protect IEC-6 cells against H2O2 induced stress by restricting oxidative injuries and MAPKs signaling pathways.

Polyphenolic compounds gained interest in the pharmaceutical research area due to their beneficial properties. Herein, antioxidant and cytoprotective capacities of T. gallica extract on H2O2-challenged rat small intestine epithelial cells were investigated. To set stress conditions, IEC-6 cultures were challenged with numerous H2O2 doses and durations. Then, 40µM H2O2 during 4h were selected to assess the cytoprotective effect of different T. gallica extract concentrations. Oxidative parameters, measured through CAT and SOD activities as well as MDA quantification were assessed. In addition, the expression of possibly involved MAPKs was also valued. Main results reported that T. gallica was rich in polyphenols and exhibited an important antioxidant activity (DPPH Assay, IC50=6µgmL-1; ABTS+ test, IC50=50µgmL-1; Fe-reducing power, EC50=100µgmL-1). The exposure of IEC-6 cultures to 40µM H2O2 during 4h caused oxidative stress manifested by (i) over 70% cell mortality, (ii) over-activity of CAT (246%), (iii) excess in MDA content (18.4nmolmg-1) and (iiii) a trigger of JNK phosphorylation. Pretreatment with T. gallica extract, especially when used at 0.25µgmL-1, restored cell viability to 122%, and normal cell morphology in H2O2-chalenged cells. In addition, this extract normalized CAT activity and MDA content (100% and 14.7nmolmg-1, respectively) to their basal levels as compared to control cells. Furthermore, stopping cell death seems to be due to dephosphorylated JNK MAPK exerted by T. gallica bioactive compounds. In all, T. gallica components provided a cross-talk between regulatory pathways leading to an efficient cytoprotection against harmful oxidative stimulus.

The diaphragm is better protected from oxidative stress than hindlimb skeletal muscle during CLP-induced sepsis.

OBJECTIVES: The aim of this study was to determine whether non-lethal sepsis induced by cecal ligation and puncture (CLP) modulates oxidative damage and enzymatic antioxidant defenses in diaphragm and hindlimb skeletal muscles (soleus and Extensor Digitorus Longus (EDL)). METHODS: Female Wistar rats were divided into four experimental groups: (1) control animals, (2) animals sacrificed 2 hours or (3) 7 days after CLP, and (4) sham-operated animals. At the end of the experimental procedure, EDL, soleus, and diaphragm muscles were harvested and 4-hydroxynonenal (HNE)-protein adducts and protein carbonyl contents were examined in relation to superoxide dismutase and catalase expression and activities. RESULTS: We observed that both non-respiratory oxidative (i.e. soleus) and glycolytic skeletal muscles (i.e. EDL) are more susceptible to sepsis-induced oxidative stress than diaphragm, as attested by an increase in 4-HNE protein adducts and carbonylated proteins after 2 hours of CLP only in soleus and EDL. DISCUSSION: These differences could be explained by higher basal enzymatic antioxidant activities in diaphragm compared to hindlimb skeletal muscles. Together, these results demonstrate that diaphragm is better protected from oxidative stress than hindlimb skeletal muscles during CLP-induced sepsis.

Single Muscle Immobilization Decreases Single-Fibre Myosin Heavy Chain Polymorphism: Possible Involvement of p38 and JNK MAP Kinases.

PURPOSE: Muscle contractile phenotype is affected during immobilization. Myosin heavy chain (MHC) isoforms are the major determinant of the muscle contractile phenotype. We therefore sought to evaluate the effects of muscle immobilization on both the MHC composition at single-fibre level and the mitogen-activated protein kinases (MAPK), a family of intracellular signaling pathways involved in the stress-induced muscle plasticity. METHODS: The distal tendon of female Wistar rat Peroneus Longus (PL) was cut and fixed to the adjacent bone at neutral muscle length. Four weeks after the surgery, immobilized and contralateral PL were dissociated and the isolated fibres were sampled to determine MHC composition. Protein kinase 38 (p38), extracellular signal-regulated kinases (ERK1/2), and c-Jun- NH2-terminal kinase (JNK) phosphorylations were measured in 6- and 15-day immobilized and contralateral PL. RESULTS: MHC distribution in immobilized PL was as follows: I = 0%, IIa = 11.8 ± 2.8%, IIx = 53.0 ± 6.1%, IIb = 35.3 ± 7.3% and I = 6.1 ± 3.9%, IIa = 22.1 ± 3.4%, IIx = 46.6 ± 4.5%, IIb = 25.2 ± 6.6% in contralateral muscle. The MHC composition in immobilized muscle is consistent with a faster contractile phenotype according to the Hill's model of the force-velocity relationship. Immobilized and contralateral muscles displayed a polymorphism index of 31.1% (95% CI 26.1-36.0) and 39.3% (95% CI 37.0-41.5), respectively. Significant increases in p38 and JNK phosphorylation were observed following 6 and 15 days of immobilization. CONCLUSIONS: Single muscle immobilization at neutral length induces a shift of MHC composition toward a faster contractile phenotype and decreases the polymorphic profile of single fibres. Activation of p38 and JNK could be a potential mechanism involved in these contractile phenotype modifications during muscle immobilization.

Tumor Necrosis Factor alpha induced hypoexcitability in rat muscle evidenced in a model of ion currents and action potential.

Sepsis and Tumor Necrosis Factor alpha (TNFα), a major pro-inflammatory mediator, have previously been shown to induce a decrease in the conductance of voltage-dependent sodium channels (NaV). Moreover, TNFα increased resting membrane potential, leading to hyperpolarization. NaV and resting potential are the two major factors of membrane excitability. Then we hypothesis that TNFα can decrease muscle membrane excitability. To evidence that role of TNFα, we carried out a simulation of the sodium and potassium currents and action potential (AP) of isolated muscle fibre. We used a computer model based on Hodgkin and Huxley equations, but also taking into account the sodium-potassium pump current. Our first aim was to optimise this model in control conditions according to our measurements of currents. Then the model was modified to fit the values measured experimentally in TNFα-containing medium in order to determine the modifications induced in the currents and hence in AP triggering. Our model provides a very good fit with experimental data on the ion currents. Moreover, it clearly shows that the triggering level of AP is increased in TNFα-containing medium, thus corresponding to a decreased excitability.

Effect of okadaic acid on cultured clam heart cells: involvement of MAPkinase pathways.

Okadaic acid (OA) is one of the main diarrhetic shellfish poisoning toxins and a potent inhibitor of protein phosphatases 1 and 2A. The downstream signal transduction pathways following the protein phosphatase inhibition are still unknown and the results of most of the previous studies are often conflicting. The aim of the present study was to evaluate the effects of OA on heart clam cells and to analyse its possible mechanisms of action by investigating the signal transduction pathways involved in OA cytotoxicity. We showed that OA at 1 µM after 24 h of treatment induces disorganization of the actin cytoskeleton, rounding and detachment of fibroblastic cells. Moreover, treatment of heart cells revealed a sequential activation of MAPK proteins depending on the OA concentration. We suggest that the duration of p38 and JNK activation is a critical factor in determining cell apoptosis in clam cardiomyocytes. In the opposite, ERK activation could be involved in cell survival. The cell death induced by OA is a MAPK modulated pathway, mediated by caspase 3-dependent mechanism. OA was found to induce no significant effect on spontaneous beating rate or inward L-type calcium current in clam cardiomyocytes, suggesting that PP1 was not inhibited even by the highest dose of OA.

Na v1.4 and Na v1.5 are modulated differently during muscle immobilization and contractile phenotype conversion.

Muscle immobilization leads to modification in its fast/slow contractile phenotype. Since the properties of voltage-gated sodium channels (Na(v)) are different between "fast" and "slow" muscles, we studied the effects of immobilization on the contractile properties and the Na(v) of rat peroneus longus (PL). The distal tendon of PL was cut and fixed to the adjacent bone at neutral muscle length. After 4 or 8 wk of immobilization, the contractile and the Na(v) properties were studied and compared with muscles from control animals (Student's t-test). After 4 wk of immobilization, PL showed a faster phenotype with a rightward shift of the force-frequency curve and a decrease in both the Burke's index of fatigability and the tetanus-to-twitch ratio. These parameters showed opposite changes between 4 and 8 wk of immobilization. The maximal sodium current in 4-wk immobilized fibers was higher compared with that of control fibers (11.5 ± 1.2 vs. 7.8 ± 0.8 nA, P = 0.008), with partial recovery to the control values in 8-wk immobilized fibers (8.6 ± 0.7 nA, P = 0.48). In the presence of tetrodotoxin, the maximal residual sodium current decreased continuously throughout immobilization. Using the Western blot analysis, Na(v)1.4 expression showed a transient increase in 4-wk muscle, whereas Na(v)1.5 expression decreased during immobilization. Our results indicate that a muscle immobilized at optimal functional length with the preservation of neural inputs exhibits a transient fast phenotype conversion. Na(v)1.4 expression and current are related to the contractile phenotype variation.

Recovery in culture of viable but nonculturable Vibrio parahaemolyticus: regrowth or resuscitation?

The objective of this study was to explore the recovery of culturability of viable but nonculturable (VBNC) Vibrio parahaemolyticus after temperature upshift and to determine whether regrowth or resuscitation occurred. A clinical strain of V. parahaemolyticus Vp5 was rendered VBNC by exposure to artificial seawater (ASW) at 4 degrees C. Aliquots of the ASW suspension of cells (0.1, 1 and 10 ml) were subjected to increased temperatures of 20 degrees C and 37 degrees C. Culturability of the cells in the aliquots was monitored for colony formation on a rich medium and changes in morphology were measured by scanning (SEM) and transmission (TEM) electron microscopy. Samples of VBNC cells were fixed and examined by SEM, revealing a heterogeneous population comprising small cells and larger, flattened cells. Forty-eight hours after temperature upshift to 20 degrees C or 37 degrees C, both elongation and division by binary fission of the cells were observed, employing SEM and TEM, but only in the 10-ml aliquots. The results suggest that a portion of VBNC cells is able to undergo cell division. It is concluded that a portion of VBNC cells of V. parahaemolyticus subjected to cold temperatures remain viable. After temperature upshift, regrowth of those cells, rather than resuscitation of all bacteria of the initial inoculum, appears to be responsible for recovery of culturability of VBNC cells of V. parahaemolyticus. Nutrient in filtrates of VBNC cells is hypothesized to allow growth of the temperature-responsive cells, with cell division occurring via binary fission, but also including an atypical, asymmetric cell division.

Effects of immobilizing a single muscle on the morphology and the activation of its muscle fibers.

A single muscle of Wistar female rats, either soleus or peroneus longus, was immobilized by fixing its cut distal tendon to the bone during 8 weeks. We observed a transitory weight loss in both muscles; the mean fiber cross-sectional area (CSA) showed a reduction at day 30, followed by an increase at day 60. The time course of the activation of the immobilized muscle was evaluated by recording the chronic electromyographic (EMG) activity during short periods (1 min every other day) of treadmill locomotion. During immobilization, the integrated EMG amplitude of the soleus increased, reaching a maximum at 4 weeks, but remained close to control values during 8 weeks for the peroneus. The median frequency (MF) of the power density spectrum of the soleus EMG was not statistically different between immobilized and control muscles, while MF of the immobilized peroneus EMG was permanently higher than that of control muscles. This suggests two different modes of adaptation in motor unit command, depending on the muscle profile, which could be concomitant with the restoration of muscle fibers CSA after 8 weeks.