Environmental triggers of autoimmunity: The association between bisphenol analogues and systemic lupus erythematosus.

The aim of this research was to examine the correlation between the exposure to bisphenol analogues (BPs), such as bisphenol A (BPA), bisphenol F (BPF), and bisphenol S (BPS), and the risk of developing systemic lupus erythematosus (SLE). Ultra performance liquid chromatography/tandem mass spectrometry (UPLC-MS/MS) was utilized to measure the levels of BPA, BPF, and BPS in the urine of 168 female participants diagnosed with SLE and 175 female participants who were deemed healthy controls. Logistic regression models were utilized to assess the connections between levels of bisphenol and the risk of SLE. The findings indicated that levels of BPA and BPF in the urine of individuals with SLE were markedly elevated compared to those in the control group. Higher exposure to BPA and BPF exhibited positive dose-response relationships with increased SLE risk. No significant associations were identified between BPS and the risk of SLE. These findings suggest exposure to BPA and BPF may be implicated as novel environmental triggers in the development of autoimmunity such as SLE. The significantly increased levels of these bisphenol analogues detected in SLE patients versus healthy controls, along with the associations between higher exposures and elevated SLE risk, which offers crucial hints for comprehending how endocrine-disrupting substances contribute to the genesis of autoimmune illnesses. Further research using robust longitudinal assessments of bisphenol analogue exposures is warranted to corroborate these epidemiological findings. Overall, this study highlights potential environmental risk factors for SLE while calling for additional investigation into the impact of bisphenol exposures on autoimmunity development.

No causal association between pneumoconiosis and three inflammatory immune diseases: a Mendelian randomization study.

Objectives: To investigate the causal relationships between pneumoconiosis and rheumatoid arthritis (RA), systemic lupus erythematosus (SLE), and gout. Methods: The random-effects inverse variance weighted (IVW) approach was utilized to explore the causal effects of the instrumental variables (IVs). Sensitivity analyses using the MR-Egger and weighted median (WM) methods were did to investigate horizontal pleiotropy. A leave-one-out analysis was used to avoid the bias resulting from single-nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs). Results: There was no causal association between pneumoconiosis and SLE, RA or gout in the European population [OR = 1.01, 95% CI: 0.94-1.10, p = 0.74; OR = 1.00, 95% CI: 0.999-1.000, p = 0.50; OR = 1.00, 95% CI: 1.000-1.001, p = 0.55]. Causal relationships were also not found in pneumoconiosis due to asbestos and other mineral fibers and SLE, RA and gout [OR = 1.01, 95% CI: 0.96-1.07, p = 0.66; OR = 1.00, 95% CI: 1.00-1.00, p = 0.68; OR = 1.00, 95% CI: 1.00-1.00, p = 0.20]. Conclusion: Our study suggests that pneumoconiosis may have no causal relationship with the three inflammatory immune diseases.

Cobalt-Ion Superhygroscopic Hydrogels Serve as Chip Heat Sinks Achieving a 5 °C Temperature Reduction via Evaporative Cooling.

In the rapidly advancing semiconductor sector, thermal management of chips remains a pivotal concern. Inherent heat generation during their operation can lead to a range of issues such as potential thermal runaway, diminished lifespan, and current leakage. To mitigate these challenges, the study introduces a superhygroscopic hydrogel embedded with metal ions. Capitalizing on intrinsic coordination chemistry, the metallic ions in the hydrogel form robust coordination structures with non-metallic nitrogen and oxygen through empty electron orbitals and lone electron pairs. This unique structure serves as an active site for water adsorption, beginning with a primary layer of chemisorbed water molecules and subsequently facilitating multi-layer physisorption via Van der Waals forces. Remarkably, the cobalt-integrated hydrogel demonstrates the capability to harvest over 1 and 5 g g-1 atmospheric water at 60% RH and 95% RH, respectively. Furthermore, the hydrogel efficiently releases the entirety of its absorbed water at a modest 40°C, enabling its recyclability. Owing to its significant water absorption capacity and minimal dehydration temperature, the hydrogel can reduce chip temperatures by 5°C during the dehydration process, offering a sustainable solution to thermal management in electronics.

Stable hydrogen evolution reaction at high current densities via designing the Ni single atoms and Ru nanoparticles linked by carbon bridges.

Continuous and effective hydrogen evolution under high current densities remains a challenge for water electrolysis owing to the rapid performance degradation under continuous large-current operation. In this study, theoretical calculations, operando Raman spectroscopy, and CO stripping experiments confirm that Ru nanocrystals have a high resistance against deactivation because of the synergistic adsorption of OH intermediates (OHad) on the Ru and single atoms. Based on this conceptual model, we design the Ni single atoms modifying ultra-small Ru nanoparticle with defect carbon bridging structure (UP-RuNiSAs/C) via a unique unipolar pulse electrodeposition (UPED) strategy. As a result, the UP-RuNiSAs/C is found capable of running steadily for 100 h at 3 A cm-2, and shows a low overpotential of 9 mV at a current density of 10 mA cm-2 under alkaline conditions. Moreover, the UP-RuNiSAs/C allows an anion exchange membrane (AEM) electrolyzer to operate stably at 1.95 Vcell for 250 h at 1 A cm-2.

Photothermal Synergistic Catalysis over Defective Zn3In2S6 for CO2 Fixation.

Carbon dioxide (CO2) cycloaddition not only produces highly valued cyclic carbonate but also utilizes CO2 as C1 resources with 100% atomic efficiency. However, traditional catalytic routes still suffer from inferior catalytic efficiency and harsh reaction conditions. Developing multienergy-field catalytic technology with expected efficiency offers great opportunity for satisfied yield under mild conditions. Herein, Zn3In2S6 with sulfur vacancies (Sv) was fabricated with the assistance of cetyltrimethylammonium bromide (CTAB), which is further employed for photothermally driven CO2 cycloaddition first. Photoluminescence spectroscopy and photoelectrochemical characterization demonstrated its superior separation kinetics of photoinduced carriers induced by defect engineering. The temperature-programmed desorption (TPD) technique indicated its excellent Lewis acidity-basicity characters. Due to the combination of above merits from photocatalysis and thermal catalysis, defective Zn3In2S6-Sv achieved a yield as high as 73.2% for cyclic carbonate at 80 °C under blue LED illumination within 2 h (apparent quantum yield of 0.468% under illumination of 380 nm monochromatic light at 36 mW·cm-2), which is 2.9, 2.0, and 6.9 times higher than that in dark conditions and those of pristine Zn3In2S6 and industrial representative tetrabutylammonium bromide (TBAB) thermal-catalysis process under the same conditions, respectively. The synergistic reaction path of photocatalysis and thermal catalysis was discriminated by theoretical calculation. This work provides new insights into the photothermal synergistic catalysis CO2 cycloaddition with defective ternary metal sulfides.

PdStuA Is a Key Transcription Factor Controlling Sporulation, Hydrophobicity, and Stress Tolerance in Penicillium digitatum.

Penicillium digitatum has become one of the main pathogens in citrus due to its high spore production and easy spread. In this study, the function of the APSES transcription factor StuA in P. digitatum was characterized, and the results indicated that it was involved in conidium and conidiophore development. No conidiophores were observed in the mycelium of the ∆PdStuA mutant that had grown for two days, while an abnormal conidiophore was found after another two days of incubation, and only small thin phialides as well as a very small number of spores were formed at the top of the hyphae. Moreover, it was observed that the ∆PdStuA mutant showed various defects, such as reduced hydrophobicity and decreased tolerance to cell wall inhibitors and H2O2. Compared to the original P. digitatum, the colony diameter of the ∆PdStuA mutant was not significantly affected, but the growth of aerial hyphae was obviously induced. In in vivo experiments, the spore production of the ∆PdStuA mutant grown on citrus fruit was remarkably decreased; however, there was no significant difference in the lesion diameter between the mutant and original strain. It could be inferred that less spore production might result in reduced spread in citrus, thereby reducing the green mold infection in citrus fruit during storage. This study provided a gene, PdStuA, which played key role in the sporulation of P. digitatum, and the results might provide a reference for the molecular mechanisms of sporulation in P. digitatum.

Insights into the genetic influences of the microbiota on the life span of a host.

Escherichia coli (E. coli) mutant strains have been reported to extend the life span of Caenorhabditis elegans (C. elegans). However, the specific mechanisms through which the genes and pathways affect aging are not yet clear. In this study, we fed Drosophila melanogaster (fruit fly) various E. coli single-gene knockout strains to screen mutant strains with an extended lifespan. The results showed that D. melanogaster fed with E. coli purE had the longest mean lifespan, which was verified by C. elegans. We conducted RNA-sequencing and analysis of C. elegans fed with E. coli purE (a single-gene knockout mutant) to further explore the underlying molecular mechanism. We used differential gene expression (DGE) analysis, enrichment analysis, and gene set enrichment analysis (GSEA) to screen vital genes and modules with significant changes in overall expression. Our results suggest that E. coli mutant strains may affect the host lifespan by regulating the protein synthesis rate (cfz-2) and ATP level (catp-4). To conclude, our study could provide new insights into the genetic influences of the microbiota on the life span of a host and a basis for developing anti-aging probiotics and drugs.

Gut microbial genetic variation modulates host lifespan, sleep, and motor performance.

Recent studies have shown that gut microorganisms can modulate host lifespan and activities, including sleep quality and motor performance. However, the role of gut microbial genetic variation in regulating host phenotypes remains unclear. In this study, we investigated the links between gut microbial genetic variation and host phenotypes using Saccharomyces cerevisiae and Drosophila melanogaster as research models. Our result suggested a novel role for peroxisome-related genes in yeast in regulating host lifespan and activities by modulating gut oxidative stress. Specifically, we found that deficiency in catalase A (CTA1) in yeast reduced both the sleep duration and lifespan of fruit flies significantly. Furthermore, our research also expanded our understanding of the relationship between sleep and longevity. Using a large sample size and excluding individual genetic background differences, we found that lifespan is associated with sleep duration, but not sleep fragmentation or motor performance. Overall, our study provides novel insights into the role of gut microbial genetic variation in regulating host phenotypes and offers potential new avenues for improving health and longevity.

Plan quality and treatment efficiency assurance of two VMAT optimization for cervical cancer radiotherapy.

To investigate the difference of the fluence map optimization (FMO) and Stochastic platform optimization (SPO) algorithm in a newly-introduced treatment planning system (TPS). METHODS: 34 cervical cancer patients with definitive radiation were retrospectively analyzed. Each patient has four plans: FMO with fixed jaw plans (FMO-FJ) and no fixed jaw plans (FMO-NFJ); SPO with fixed jaw plans (SPO-FJ) and no fixed jaw plans (SPO-NFJ). Dosimetric parameters, Modulation Complexity Score (MCS), Gamma Pass Rate (GPR) and delivery time were analyzed among the four plans. RESULTS: For target coverage, SPO-FJ plans are the best ones (P ≤ 0.00). FMO plans are better than SPO-NFJ plans (P ≤ 0.00). For OARs sparing, SPO-FJ plans are better than FMO plans for mostly OARs (P ≤ 0.04). Additionally, SPO-FJ plans are better than SPO-NFJ plans (P ≤ 0.02), except for rectum V45Gy. Compared to SPO-NFJ plans, the FMO plans delivered less dose to bladder, rectum, colon V40Gy and pelvic bone V40Gy (P ≤ 0.04). Meanwhile, the SPO-NFJ plans showed superiority in MU, delivery time, MCS and GPR in all plans. In terms of delivery time and MCS, the SPO-FJ plans are better than FMO plans. FMO-FJ plans are better than FMO-NFJ plans in delivery efficiency. MCSs are strongly correlated with PCTV length, which are negatively with PCTV length (P ≤ 0.03). The delivery time and MUs of the four plans are strongly correlated (P ≤ 0.02). Comparing plans with fixed or no fixed jaw in two algorithms, no difference was found in FMO plans in target coverage and minor difference in Kidney_L Dmean, Mu and delivery time between PCTV width≤15.5 cm group and >15.5 cm group. For SPO plans, SPO-FJ plans showed more superiority in target coverage and OARs sparing than the SPO-NFJ plans in the two groups. CONCLUSIONS: SPO-FJ plans showed superiority in target coverage and OARs sparing, as well as higher delivery efficiency in the four plans.

Endocrine-disrupting chemicals and autoimmune diseases.

Endocrine-disrupting chemicals (EDCs) widely exist in people's production and life which have great potential to damage human and animal health. Over the past few decades, growing attention has been paid to the impact of EDCs on human health, as well as immune system. So far, researchers have proved that EDCs (such as bisphenol A (BPA), phthalate, tetrachlorodibenzodioxin (TCDD), etc.) affect human immune function and promotes the occurrence and development of autoimmune diseases (ADs). Therefore, in order to better understand how EDCs affect ADs, we summarized the current knowledge about the impact of EDCs on ADs, and elaborated the potential mechanism of the impact of EDCs on ADs in this review.

The Interaction of OTUB1 and TRAF3 Mediates NLRP3 Inflammasome Activity to Regulate TGF-ß1-induced BEAS-2B Cell Injury.

Asthma is a frequently chronic respiratory disease with inflammation and remodeling in the airway. OTUB1 has been reported to be associated with pulmonary diseases. However, the role and potential mechanism of OTUB1 in asthma remain unclear. The expressions of OTUB1 in the bronchial mucosal tissues of asthmatic children and TGF-ß1-induced BEAS-2B cells were determined. The biological behaviors were assessed in an asthma in vitro model using a loss-function approach. The contents of inflammatory cytokines were detected by ELISA kits. The related protein expressions were performed using western blot assay. Besides, the interaction between OTUB1 and TRAF3 was detected by Co-IP and ubiquitination assays. Our results showed that OTUB1 level was increased in asthmatic bronchial mucosal tissues and TGF-ß1-induced BEAS-2B cells. OTUB1 knockdown promoted proliferation, inhibited apoptosis and EMT of TGF-ß1-treated cells. The inhibition of OTUB1 attenuated the TGF-ß1-induced inflammation and remodeling. Furthermore, OTUB1 knockdown inhibited the deubiquitination of TRAF3 and further suppressed the activation of NLRP3 inflammasome. The overexpression of TRAF3 or NLRP3 reversed the positive role of OTUB1 knockdown in TGF-ß1-induced cells injury. Collectively, OTUB1 deubiquitinates TRAF3 to activate NLRP3 inflammasome, thereby leading to inflammation and remodeling of TGF-ß1-induced cells, and further promoting the pathogenesis of asthma.

GAR-transferase contributes to purine synthesis and mitochondrion function to maintain fungal development and full virulence of Penicillium digitatum.

Penicillium digitatum is one of the most critical phytopathogens during the citrus postharvest period. However, the molecular mechanism of pathogenesis remains to be further explored. Purine is a multiple functional substance in organisms. To verify the role of the de novo purine biosynthesis (DNPB) pathway in P. digitatum, we investigated the third gene Pdgart, glycinamide ribonucleotide (GAR)-transferase, of this pathway in this study. The deletion mutant ΔPdgart was generated in the principle of homologous recombination via Agrobacterium tumefaciens-mediated transformation (ATMT). The phenotypic assay indicated that the ΔPdgart mutant displayed severe defects in hyphae growth, conidiation and germination, which can be rescued by the addition of exogenous ATP and AMP. Compared with wild-type strain N1, the ATP level of strain ΔPdgart was detected to be sharply declined during conidial germination, and this was resulted from the damage to purine synthesis and aerobic respiration. The pathogenicity assay suggested that mutant ΔPdgart infected citrus fruit but attenuated disease, which was owing to its reduced production of organic acids and activities of cell wall degradation enzymes. Additionally, the ΔPdgart mutant showed altered sensitivity to stress agents and fungicides. Taken together, the present study provides insights into the essential functions of Pdgart, and paves the way for further study and novel fungicide development.

The effect of greenness on allergic rhinitis outcomes in children and adolescents: A systematic review and meta-analysis.

BACKGROUND: The relationship between greenness and health emerges as new public health concern. More published studies from multiple areas have explored the relationship between greenness and allergic rhinitis (AR) in children and adolescents. This study aims to determine the association between greenness and allergic rhinitis by systematic review and meta-analysis, in order to provide a more comprehensive assessment of the impact of greenness on AR in children and adolescents. METHODS: The relative literature was systematically searched in PubMed, Embase, and Web of science lastly on September 25, 2022. Terms related to greenness and allergic rhinitis were used for searching. Summary effect estimates of greenness on AR in children and adolescents were calculated for per 10 % increase of greenness exposure with different buffer sizes by random-effects model. RESULTS: A total of 579 studies were screened, and fourteen studies from Europe, Asia and North America were finally included. Most greenness exposure were measured by normalized difference vegetation index (NDVI). Enhanced vegetation index, outdoor-green environmental score and existed to measuring different greenness types. Greenness surrounding residences and schools were assessed. The overall effect of greenness on primary outcome was 1.00 (95%CI = 0.99-1.00). Most effect estimates of greenness were included in the NDVI-500 m group, and the pooled OR was 0.99 (95%CI = 0.97-1.01). No significant pooled estimates were found in analyses with study locations. CONCLUSION: This study indicates no significant association between greenness exposure and AR in children and adolescents. Various exposure measures and conversion of data may affect the results of this meta-analysis. More precise assessment of personal greenness exposure in well-designed prospective studies are vital for drawing a definite association in future. Furthermore, greenness exposure surrounding schools should be paid considerable attention for its effect on AR in school-aged children and adolescents.

Intestinal fungi and systemic autoimmune diseases.

Nearly 20 years of studies have shown that fungi and the human immune system (non-specific immunity and specific immunity) and bacterial--fungal interactions maintain a balance that can't lead to diseases. Fungi--microorganism that lives in human intestine--may play an important role in human health and disease. Population studies and animal models in some diseases have found the changes in the diversity and composition of fungi. The dysregulation of the fungi can disrupt the normal "running" of the immune system and bacteria, which triggers the development of inflammatory diseases. The latest studies of fungi in inflammatory bowel disease, systemic lupus erythematosus, ankylosing spondylitis and type 1 diabetes mellitus were summarized. This review considers how the healthy host protect against the potential harm of intestinal fungi through the immune system and how fungal dysregulation alters host immunity.

Circulating miRNAs act as potential biomarkers for asthma.

Background: Identification of new clinical markers contributes to a better understanding of the pathogenesis of asthma. Considering the crucial role of LIGHT in asthma, it may become a potential target for asthma. The aim of current study was to determine if circulating microRNAs (miRNAs) targeting LIGHT may be used as diagnostic biomarkers to distinguish asthma. Methods: Blood serum from a cohort of 60 subjects, including 20 cases with mild asthma, 20 cases with moderate-to-severe asthma, and 20 healthy controls were included. Serum was analyzed for circulating miRNAs profiles through miRNAs microarray. Real Time PCR was conducted to verify the results of miRNA microarray. Correlations between circulating miRNAs targeting LIGHT and clinical characteristics were investigated. Results: A total of 365 miRNAs were differentially expressed in asthma patients. Among them, miR-107 and miR-140-5p were found to target LIGHT, and varied in asthmatics. Additionally, miR-107 and miR-140-5p expressions were positively correlated with the absolute value of peripheral eosinophils. Finally, miR-140-5p and miR-107 were demonstrated to have good diagnostic efficacy for asthma (AUC= 0.8667 and 0.9400) with good sensitivity (0.8000 and 0.8667,respectively) and specificity (0.8667 and 0.867). Thus, circulating miRNAs expressed differentially between healthy control and asthma patients. Conclusion: Plasma miR-140-5p and miR-107 can be used as diagnostic biomarkers to distinguish patients with asthma from healthy control, and may take part in asthma pathogenesis by negatively regulating LIGHT. Further research was needed to evaluate their roles as potential biomarkers in the diagnosis of asthma.

Ultra-small RuO2/NHC nanocrystal electrocatalysts with efficient water oxidation activities in acidic media.

Designing highly active and durable oxygen evolution reaction (OER) electrocatalysts is indispensable for promoting the sluggish reaction kinetics of OER to achieve low overpotential. RuO2 is one of the representative oxygen evolution electrocatalysts in acid electrolytes, but it still faces the problem of poor stability. Herein, RuO2 nanocrystal with an ultra-small size of approximately 3.5 nm loaded on N-doped hierarchical porous carbon (NHC) is successfully synthesized by RuCl3 dipping, followed by an annealing process. It is found that NHC is assembled of porous nanosheets with a high specific surface area (BET up to 2107 m2 g-1), which could provide more active sites for RuO2 loading and enable decorated catalysts to be effectively utilized. Combining the advantages of porous NHC and the high electrocatalytic activity of RuO2, the optimized electrocatalyst RuO2/NHC3 achieves a low overpotential of 186 mV at 10 mA cm-2 for acidic water oxidation with a Tafel slope as low as 60 mV dec-1 and maintains excellent long-term stability throughout the 27 h chronopotentiometry test in 0.5 M H2SO4. The elevated acidic OER activity and stability can be attributed to the diminutive size, abundant oxygen vacancies, and enlarged electrochemically active surface area of RuO2/NHC3. This work could provide opportunities to explore efficient anodic electrocatalysts in acidic media.

Dimethyl Dicarbonate as a Food Additive Effectively Inhibits Geotrichum citri-aurantii of Citrus.

Dimethyl dicarbonate (DMDC), a food additive, can be added to a variety of foods as a preservative. This study aimed to evaluate the inhibitory effects of DMDC on Geotrichum citri-aurantii in vitro and in vivo, as well as the potential antifungal mechanism. In vitro experiments showed that 250 mg/L DMDC completely inhibited the growth of G. citri-aurantii and significantly inhibited spore germination by 96.33%. The relative conductivity and propidium iodide (PI) staining results showed that DMDC at 250 mg/L increased membrane permeability and damaged membrane integrity. Malondialdehyde (MDA) content and 2, 7-Dichlorodihydrofluorescein diacetate (DCHF-DA) staining determination indicated that DMDC resulted in intracellular reactive oxygen species (ROS) accumulation and lipid peroxidation. Scanning electron microscopy (SEM) analysis found that the mycelia were distorted and the surface collapsed after DMDC treatment. Morphological changes in mitochondria and the appearance of cavities were observed by transmission electron microscopy (TEM). In vivo, 500 mg/L DMDC and G. citri-aurantii were inoculated into the wounds of citrus. After 7 days of inoculation, DMDC significantly reduced the disease incidence and disease diameter of sour rot. The storage experiment showed that DMDC treatment did not affect the appearance and quality of fruits. In addition, we found that DMDC at 500 mg/L significantly increased the activity of citrus defense-related enzymes, including peroxidase (POD) and phenylalanine ammonia-lyase (PAL). Therefore, DMDC could be used as an effective method to control citrus sour rot.

Natamycin as a safe food additive to control postharvest green mould and sour rot in citrus.

AIMS: The purpose of this study was to explore the potential inhibitory mechanism and assess the feasibility of natamycin as an antifungal agent in the utilization of citrus storage. METHODS AND RESULTS: In this study, the mycelial growth, spore germination as well as germ tube elongations of Geotrichum citri-aurantii and Penicillium digitatum were significantly inhibited by natamycin treatment. The relative conductivities of G. citri-aurantii and P. digitatum mycelia were increased as time went by and the damages of plasma membranes were up to 17.43% and 28.61%. The mitochondria abnormalities and vacuolation were also observed in the TEM. Moreover, the sour rot and green mould decay incidences were reduced to 18.33% and 10% post incubation with G. citri-aurantii and P. digitatum under 300 mg L-1 natamycin application, respectively. For the citrus storage experiment, there was no significant difference in edible rate, juice yield, total soluble solid (TSS) content, titratable acid (TA) and decay incidences of the 'Newhall' navel orange fruit treated with 300 mg L-1 natamycin stored for 90 d. CONCLUSIONS: Natamycin could decrease the expansions of green mould and sour rot and maintain quality and improve storability on citrus fruit. SIGNIFICANCE AND IMPACT OF THE STUDY: This work explores the potential inhibition mechanism of natamycin G. citri-aurantii and P. digitatum and assesses the feasibility of natamycin as an antifungal agent in the utilization of citrus storage.

Recent development of small-molecular inhibitors against Clostridioides difficile infection.

Clostridioides difficile infection is one of the leading causes of antibiotic-associated infectious diarrhea, and is associated with increased incidence and severity worldwide. While antibiotics have traditionally been used for prophylaxis and treatment of C. difficile infection, elevated antibiotic resistance has promoted the development and spread of C. difficile infection. Since the current standard-of-care antibiotics are ineffective for treating infections, there is an urgent need for novel antibacterial drugs or strategies to target C. difficile infection. C. difficile virulence and vital physiological functions are considered to be ideal targets. Thus, several promising lead compounds have been identified through screening both synthetic and natural product libraries. The goal of this review is to provide an update of the current scientific knowledge of C. difficile infection, focusing on small molecule inhibitors, which can effectively inhibit C. difficile by suppressing virulence or destroying vital physiological structures.

Targeting Clostridioides difficile: New uses for old drugs.

Clostridioides difficile bacteria can cause life-threatening diarrhea and colitis owing to limited treatment options and unacceptably high recurrence rates among infected patients. This necessitates the development of alternative routes for C. difficile treatment. Drug repurposing with new indications represents a proven shortcut. Here, we present a refined focus on 16 FDA-approved drugs that would be suitable for further development as potential anti-C. difficile drugs. Of these drugs, clinical trials have been conducted on five currently used drugs; however, ursodeoxycholic acid is the only drug to enter Phase IV clinical trials to date. Thus, drug repurposing promotes the study of mechanistic and therapeutic strategies, providing new options for the development of next-generation anti-C. difficile agents.