Grasses exploit geometry to achieve improved guard cell dynamics.

Stomata are controllable micropores formed between two adjacent guard cells (GCs) that regulate gas flow across the plant surface.1 Grasses, among the most successful organisms on the planet and the main food crops for humanity, have GCs flanked by specialized lateral subsidiary cells (SCs).2,3,4 SCs improve performance by acting as a local pool of ions and metabolites to drive changes in turgor pressure within the GCs that open/close the stomatal pore.4,5,6,7,8 The 4-celled complex also involves distinctive changes in geometry, having dumbbell-shaped GCs compared with typical kidney-shaped stomata.2,4,9 However, the degree to which this distinctive geometry contributes to improved stomatal performance, and the underlying mechanism, remains unclear. To address this question, we created a finite element method (FEM) model of a grass stomatal complex that successfully captures experimentally observed pore opening/closure. Exploration of the model, including in silico and experimental mutant analyses, supports the importance of a reciprocal pressure system between GCs and SCs for effective stomatal function, with SCs functioning as springs to restrain lateral GC movement. Our results show that SCs are not essential but lead to a more responsive system. In addition, we show that GC wall anisotropy is not required for grass stomatal function (in contrast to kidney-shaped GCs10) but that a relatively thick GC rod region is needed to enhance pore opening. Our results demonstrate that a specific cellular geometry and associated mechanical properties are required for the effective functioning of grass stomata.

Zasp52 strengthens whole embryo tissue integrity through supracellular actomyosin networks.

During morphogenesis, large-scale changes of tissue primordia are coordinated across an embryo. In Drosophila, several tissue primordia and embryonic regions are bordered or encircled by supracellular actomyosin cables, junctional actomyosin enrichments networked between many neighbouring cells. We show that the single Drosophila Alp/Enigma-family protein Zasp52, which is most prominently found in Z-discs of muscles, is a component of many supracellular actomyosin structures during embryogenesis, including the ventral midline and the boundary of the salivary gland placode. We reveal that Zasp52 contains within its central coiled-coil region a type of actin-binding motif usually found in CapZbeta proteins, and this domain displays actin-binding activity. Using endogenously-tagged lines, we identify that Zasp52 interacts with junctional components, including APC2, Polychaetoid and Sidekick, and actomyosin regulators. Analysis of zasp52 mutant embryos reveals that the severity of the embryonic defects observed scales inversely with the amount of functional protein left. Large tissue deformations occur where actomyosin cables are found during embryogenesis, and in vivo and in silico analyses suggest a model whereby supracellular Zasp52-containing cables aid to insulate morphogenetic changes from one another.

Altering arabinans increases Arabidopsis guard cell flexibility and stomatal opening.

Stomata regulate plant water use and photosynthesis by controlling leaf gas exchange. They do this by reversibly opening the pore formed by two adjacent guard cells, with the limits of this movement ultimately set by the mechanical properties of the guard cell walls and surrounding epidermis.1,2 A body of evidence demonstrates that the methylation status and cellular patterning of pectin wall polymers play a core role in setting the guard cell mechanical properties, with disruption of the system leading to poorer stomatal performance.3-6 Here we present genetic and biochemical data showing that wall arabinans modulate guard cell flexibility and can be used to engineer stomata with improved performance. Specifically, we show that a short-chain linear arabinan epitope associated with the presence of rhamnogalacturonan I in the guard cell wall is required for full opening of the stomatal pore. Manipulations leading to the novel accumulation of longer-chain arabinan epitopes in guard cell walls led to an increase in the maximal pore aperture. Using computational modeling combined with atomic force microscopy, we show that this phenotype reflected a decrease in wall matrix stiffness and, consequently, increased flexing of the guard cells under turgor pressure, generating larger, rounder stomatal pores. Our results provide theoretical and experimental support for the conclusion that arabinan side chains of pectin modulate guard cell wall stiffness, setting the limits for cell flexing and, consequently, pore aperture, gas exchange, and photosynthetic assimilation.

A three-dimensional vertex model forDrosophilasalivary gland invagination.

During epithelial morphogenesis, force generation at the cellular level not only causes cell deformation, but may also produce coordinated cell movement and rearrangement on the tissue level. In this paper, we use a novel three-dimensional vertex model to explore the roles of cellular forces during the formation of the salivary gland in theDrosophilaembryo. Representing the placode as an epithelial sheet of initially columnar cells, we focus on the spatial and temporal patterning of contractile forces due to three actomyosin pools: the apicomedial actomyosin in the pit of the placode, junctional actomyosin arcs outside the pit, and a supracellular actomyosin cable along the circumference of the placode. In anin silico'wild type' model, these pools are activated at different times according to experimental data. To identify the role of each myosin pool, we have also simulated variousin silico'mutants' in which only one or two of the myosin pools are activated. We find that the apicomedial myosin initiates a small dimple in the pit, but this is not essential for the overall invagination of the placode. The myosin arcs are the main driver of invagination and are responsible for the internalization of the apical surface. The circumferential actomyosin cable acts to constrict the opening of the developing tube, and is responsible for forming a properly shaped lumen. Cell intercalation tends to facilitate the invagination, but the geometric constraints of our model only allow a small number of intercalations, and their effect is minor. The placode invagination predicted by the model is in general agreement with experimental observations. It confirms some features of the current 'belt-and-braces' model for the process, and provides new insights on the separate roles of the various myosin pools and their spatio-temporal coordination.

Dynamics of PAR Proteins Explain the Oscillation and Ratcheting Mechanisms in Dorsal Closure.

We present a vertex-based model for Drosophila dorsal closure that predicts the mechanics of cell oscillation and contraction from the dynamics of the PAR proteins. Based on experimental observations of how aPKC, Par-6, and Bazooka translocate from the circumference of the apical surface to the medial domain, and how they interact with each other and ultimately regulate the apicomedial actomyosin, we formulate a system of differential equations that captures the key features of dorsal closure, including distinctive behaviors in its early, slow, and fast phases. The oscillation in cell area in the early phase of dorsal closure results from an intracellular negative feedback loop that involves myosin, an actomyosin regulator, aPKC, and Bazooka. In the slow phase, gradual sequestration of apicomedial aPKC by Bazooka clusters causes incomplete disassembly of the actomyosin network over each cycle of oscillation, thus producing a so-called ratchet. The fast phase of rapid cell and tissue contraction arises when medial myosin, no longer antagonized by aPKC, builds up in time and produces sustained contraction. Thus, a minimal set of rules governing the dynamics of the PAR proteins, extracted from experimental observations, can account for all major mechanical outcomes of dorsal closure, including the transitions between its three distinct phases.