Cloning, expression, crystallization and preliminary X-ray analysis of the DNA-binding protein Sso10a from Sulfolobus solfataricus.

The gene for the DNA-binding protein Sso10a from the hyperthermophilic archaeon Sulfolobus solfataricus was cloned and overexpressed in Escherichia coli. Crystals of the purified protein have been grown that diffract to beyond 2.15 A resolution. The protein crystals belong to the orthorhombic space group P2(1)2(1)2(1), with unit-cell parameters a = 57.24, b = 60.16, c = 69.96 A. With one dimer per asymmetric unit, the crystal to volume per protein mass (V(M)) is 2.9 A(3) Da(-1) and the solvent content is approximately 57%. Complete X-ray diffraction native data were collected from a single crystal and processed to 2.15 A.

The acid-induced folded state of Sac7d is the native state.

Sac7d unfolds at low pH in the absence of salt, with the greatest extent of unfolding obtained at pH 2. We have previously shown that the acid unfolded protein is induced to refold by decreasing the pH to 0 or by addition of salt (McCrary BS, Bedell J. Edmondson SP, Shriver JW, 1998, J Mol Biol 276:203-224). Both near-ultraviolet circular dichroism spectra and ANS fluorescence enhancements indicate that the acid- and salt-induced folded states have a native fold and are not molten globular. 1H,15N heteronuclear single quantum coherence NMR spectra confirm that the native, acid-, and salt-induced folded states are essentially identical. The most significant differences in amide 1H and 15N chemical shifts are attributed to hydrogen bonding to titrating carboxyl side chains and through-bond inductive effects. The 1H NMR chemical shifts of protons affected by ring currents in the hydrophobic core of the acid- and salt-induced folded states are identical to those observed in the native. The radius of gyration of the acid-induced folded state at pH 0 is shown to be identical to that of the native state at pH 7 by small angle X-ray scattering. We conclude that acid-induced collapse of Sac7d does not lead to a molten globule but proceeds directly to the native state. The folding of Sac7d as a function of pH and anion concentration is summarized with a phase diagram that is similar to those observed for other proteins that undergo acid-induced folding except that the A-state is encompassed by the native state. These results demonstrate that formation of a molten globule is not a general property of proteins that are refolded by acid.

Crystal structures of the chromosomal proteins Sso7d/Sac7d bound to DNA containing T-G mismatched base-pairs.

Sso7d and Sac7d are two small chromatin proteins from the hyperthermophilic archaeabacterium Sulfolobus solfataricus and Sulfolobus acidocaldarius, respectively. The crystal structures of Sso7d-GTGATCGC, Sac7d-GTGATCGC and Sac7d-GTGATCAC have been determined and refined at 1.45 A, 2.2 A and 2.2 A, respectively, to investigate the DNA binding property of Sso7d/Sac7d in the presence of a T-G mismatch base-pair. Detailed structural analysis revealed that the intercalation site includes the T-G mismatch base-pair and Sso7d/Sac7d bind to that mismatch base-pair in a manner similar to regular DNA. In the Sso7d-GTGATCGC complex, a new inter-strand hydrogen bond between T2O4 and C14N4 is formed and well-order bridging water molecules are found. The results suggest that the less stable DNA stacking site involving a T-G mismatch may be a preferred site for protein side-chain intercalation.

The solution structure of the Sac7d/DNA complex: a small-angle X-ray scattering study.

Small-angle X-ray scattering has been used to study the structure of the multimeric complexes that form between double-stranded DNA and the archaeal chromatin protein Sac7d from Sulfolobus acidocaldarius. Scattering data from complexes of Sac7d with a defined 32-mer oligonucleotide, with poly[d(GC)], and with E. coli DNA indicate that the protein binds along the surface of an extended DNA structure. Molecular models of fully saturated Sac7d/DNA complexes were constructed using constraints from crystal structure and solution binding data. Conformational space was searched systematically by varying the parameters of the models within the constrained set to find the best fits between the X-ray scattering data and simulated scattering curves. The best fits were obtained for models composed of repeating segments of B-DNA with sharp kinks at contiguous protein binding sites. The results are consistent with extrapolation of the X-ray crystal structure of a 1:1 Sac7d/octanucleotide complex [Robinson, H., et al. (1998) Nature 392, 202-205] to polymeric DNA. The DNA conformation in our multimeric Sac7d/DNA model has the base pairs tilted by about 35 degrees and displaced 3 A from the helix axis. There is a large roll between two base pairs at the protein-induced kink site, resulting in an overall bending angle of about 70 degrees for Sac7d binding. Regularly repeating bends in the fully saturated complex result in a zigzag structure with negligible compaction of DNA. The Sac7d molecules in the model form a unique structure with two left-handed helical ribbons winding around the outside of the right-handed duplex DNA.

The crystal structure of the hyperthermophile chromosomal protein Sso7d bound to DNA.

Sso7d and Sac7d are two small (approximately 7,000 Mr), but abundant, chromosomal proteins from the hyperthermophilic archaeabacteria Sulfolobus solfataricus and S. acidocaldarius respectively. These proteins have high thermal, acid and chemical stability. They bind DNA without marked sequence preference and increase the Tm of DNA by approximately 40 degrees C. Sso7d in complex with GTAATTAC and GCGT(iU)CGC + GCGAACGC was crystallized in different crystal lattices and the crystal structures were solved at high resolution. Sso7d binds in the minor groove of DNA and causes a single-step sharp kink in DNA (approximately 60 degrees) by the intercalation of the hydrophobic side chains of Val 26 and Met 29. The intercalation sites are different in the two complexes. Observations of this novel DNA binding mode in three independent crystal lattices indicate that it is not a function of crystal packing.

The hyperthermophile chromosomal protein Sac7d sharply kinks DNA.

The proteins Sac7d and Sso7d belong to a class of small chromosomal proteins from the hyperthermophilic archaeon Sulfolobus acidocaldarius and S. solfactaricus, respectively. These proteins are extremely stable to heat, acid and chemical agents. Sac7d binds to DNA without any particular sequence preference and thereby increases its melting temperature by approximately 40 degrees C. We have now solved and refined the crystal structure of Sac7d in complex with two DNA sequences to high resolution. The structures are examples of a nonspecific DNA-binding protein bound to DNA, and reveal that Sac7d binds in the minor groove, causing a sharp kinking of the DNA helix that is more marked than that induced by any sequence-specific DNA-binding proteins. The kink results from the intercalation of specific hydrophobic side chains of Sac7d into the DNA structure, but without causing any significant distortion of the protein structure relative to the uncomplexed protein in solution.

Linkage of protonation and anion binding to the folding of Sac7d.

The temperature, pH, and salt dependence of the folding of recombinant Sac7d from the hyperthermophile Sulfolobus acidocaldarius is mapped using multi-dimensional differential scanning calorimetry (DSC) and folding progress surfaces followed by circular dichroism. Linkage relations are derived to explain the observed dependencies, and it is shown that the data can be explained by the linkage of at least two protonation reactions and two anion binding sites to a two-state unfolding process. Circular dichroism spectra indicate that a native-like fold is stabilized at acid pH by anion binding. An apparent binding isotherm surface (folding progress versus pH and salt) is used to obtain intrinsic chloride binding constants as a function of pH for both sites. A saddle is predicted in the folding progress surface (progress versus temperature and pH) at low salt with a minimum near pH 2 and 20 degrees C with approximately 25% of the protein folded. The position of the saddle is sensitive to the intrinsic delta C degrees of unfolding and provides a third measure of delta C degrees independent of that obtained by a Kirchoff plot of DSC data and chemical denaturation. The observed enthalpy of unfolding approaches zero near the saddle making the unfolding largely invisible to DSC under these conditions. The linkage analysis demonstrates that the delta C degrees for unfolding obtained from a Kirchoff plot of DSC data should be distinguished from the intrinsic delta C degrees of unfolding. It is shown that the discrepancy between the free energy of unfolding for Sac7d obtained by DSC and that obtained by chemical denaturation may be explained by the linkage of protonation and anion binding to protein folding. The linkage analysis demonstrates the limitations of using the delta Hcal/ delta Hvh ratio an indication of two-state unfolding.

Hyperthermophile protein folding thermodynamics: differential scanning calorimetry and chemical denaturation of Sac7d.

Recombinant Sac7d protein from the thermoacidophile Sulfolobus acidocaldarius is shown to be stable towards acid, thermal and chemical denaturation. The protein maintains a compact native fold between pH 0 and 10 in 0.3 M KCl and 25 degrees C as indicated by near and far UV circular dichroism spectra. Thermal unfolding followed by differential scanning calorimetry (DSC) occurs as a reversible, two-state transition from pH 0 to 10, with a maximal Tm of 90.7 degrees C between pH 5 and 9. At pH 0 the protein unfolds with a Tm of 63.3 degrees C. Plots of the enthalpy of unfolding as a function of Tm are linear and yield an anomalously low delta Cp of 497 (+/-20) cal deg-1 mol-1 using the Kirchhoff relation. Guanidine hydrochloride and urea-induced chemical denaturation of Sac7d occur reversibly and can be followed by circular dichroism. Global non-linear regression of the chemical denaturation data constrained by DSC determined values for delta Hm and Tm yields a delta Cp of unfolding of 858 (+/-21) cal deg-1 mol-1. The higher delta Cp is in good agreement with that predicted from the buried polar and apolar surface areas using the NMR solution structure. It is similar to values reported for mesophile proteins of comparable size, indicating that the packing and change in solvent-accessible surface area on unfolding are not unusual. Similarly, guanidine hydrochloride and urea m-values are in good agreement with those expected for a protein of 66 residues. Possible explanations for the difference in delta Cp determined by application of the Kirchhoff relation to DSC data and that determined by the global fit are discussed. Protein stability curves defined by either delta Cp values are similar to those observed for small mesophile proteins. Although the protein is thermally stable, it is marginally stable thermodynamically with a free energy of unfolding of 1.6 (+/-0.1) kcal mol-1 at the growth temperature of 80 degrees C. The large number of potential ion pairs on the surface of this hyperthermophile protein do not result in an inordinate increase in stability. Post-translational modification, possibly lysine monomethylation, appears to be the single most important stabilizing factor that distinguishes the native hyperthermophile protein from small mesophile proteins. Additional stabilization in vivo is expected from compatible osmolytes (polyamines) and DNA-binding.

Equilibrium DNA binding of Sac7d protein from the hyperthermophile Sulfolobus acidocaldarius: fluorescence and circular dichroism studies.

The thermodynamics of the binding of the Sac7d protein of Sulfolobus acidocaldarius to double-stranded DNA has been characterized using spectroscopic signals arising from both the protein and the DNA. Ligand binding density function analysis has been used to demonstrate that the fractional change in protein intrinsic tryptophan fluorescence quenching that occurs upon DNA binding is equal to the fraction of protein bound. Reverse titration data have been fit directly to the McGhee-von Hippel model [McGhee, J., & von Hippel, P. (1974) J. Mol. Biol. 86, 469-489] using nonlinear regression. Sac7d binds noncooperatively to poly(dGdC) x poly(dGdC) with an intrinsic affinity of 6.5 x 10(6) M(-1) and a site size of 4 base pairs in 1 mM KH2PO4 and 50 mM KC1 (pH 6.8). Some binding sequence preference is noted, with the binding to poly(dIdC) x poly(dIdC) over 10-fold stronger than to poly(DAdT) x poly(dAdT). The binding is largely driven by the polyelectrolyte effect and is consistent with a release of 4.4 monovalent cations from DNA upon complex formation or the formation of 5 ion pairs at the protein-DNA interface. Extrapolation of salt back-titration data to 1 M KC1 indicates a -2.2 kcal/mol nonelectrostatic contribution to the binding free energy. A van't Hoff analysis of poly(dGdC) x poly(dGdC) binding shows that the binding enthalpy is approximately zero and the process is entropically driven. The affinity decreases slightly between pH 5.4 and 8.0. There is no significant difference between the binding parameters of recombinant Sac7d and native Sac7 proteins, indicating that methylation of the native protein has no effect on the DNA binding function. The binding of Sac7d to various DNAs leads to a significant increase in the DNA long-wavelength circular dichroism (CD) band, the intensity of which shows a sigmoidal dependence on Sac7d concentration. The sigmoidal CD binding isotherm can be quantitatively modeled by a conformational transition in the DNA that is cooperatively induced when protein monomers are bound within a given number of base pairs, ranging from zero for poly(dIdC) x poly(dIdC) to 8 or less for poly(dAdG) x poly(dCdT).

Solution structure of the DNA-binding protein Sac7d from the hyperthermophile Sulfolobus acidocaldarius.

The Sac7 proteins from the hyperthermophile Sulfolobus acidocaldarius are a heterogeneous mixture of small, thermostable, nonspecific DNA-binding proteins. One of these proteins, Sac7d, has been overexpressed in Escherichia coli to provide a homogeneous preparation for structure, stability, and function studies. We present here essentially complete sequence-specific 1H NMR assignments for Sac7d, a delineation of secondary structural elements, and the high-resolution solution structure obtained from a full relaxation matrix refinement. The final structure provides an excellent fit to the NMR data with an NOE R-factor of 0.27 for backbone NOEs. The structure has a compact globular fold with 82% of the sequence involved in regular secondary structure: an antiparallel two-stranded beta-ribbon with a tight turn, followed by a short 3(10) helix, an antiparallel three-stranded beta-sheet, another short 3(10) helix, and finally four turns of alpha-helix. The amphipathic alpha-helix packs across the hydrophobic face of the three-stranded beta-sheet in an open-faced sandwich arrangement with at least one turn of the helix exposed beyond the sheet. The hydrophobic face of the beta-ribbon packs against a corner of the twisted beta-sheet. The single tryptophan responsible for the 88% fluorescence quenching upon DNA binding is exposed on the surface of the three-stranded beta-sheet. Lysines 5 and 7, whose monomethylation may be associated with enhanced thermostability, are highly solvent exposed along the inner edge of the two-stranded ribbon. The structure of Sac7d differs in many respects from that reported for the homologous native Sso7d [Baumann et al. (1994) Nature Struct. Biol. 1, 808] with a backbone RMSD greater than 3.0 A, largely due to the packing and length of the C-terminal alpha-helix which may be important in Sac7d DNA binding.

Gene cloning, expression, and characterization of the Sac7 proteins from the hyperthermophile Sulfolobus acidocaldarius.

The genes for two Sac7 DNA-binding proteins, Sac7d and Sac7e, from the extremely thermophilic archaeon Sulfolobus acidocaldarius have been cloned into Escherichia coli and sequenced. The sac7d and sac7e open reading frames encode 66 amino acid (7608 Da) and 65 amino acid (7469 Da) proteins, respectively. Southern blots indicate that these are the only two Sac7 protein genes in S. acidocaldarius, each present as a single copy. Sac7a, b, and c proteins appear to be carboxy-terminal modified Sac7d species. The transcription initiation and termination regions of the sac7d and sac7e genes have been identified along with the promoter elements. Potential ribosome binding sites have been identified downstream of the initiator codons. The sac7d gene has been expressed in E. coli, and various physical properties of the recombinant protein have been compared with those of native Sac7. The UV absorbance spectra and extinction coefficients, the fluorescence excitation and emission spectra, the circular dichroism, and the two-dimensional double-quantum filtered 1H NMR spectra of the native and recombinant species are essentially identical, indicating essentially identical local and global folds. The recombinant and native proteins bind and stabilize double-stranded DNA with a site size of 3.5 base pairs and an intrinsic binding constant of 2 x 10(7) M-1 for poly[dGdC].poly[dGdC] in 0.01 M KH2PO4 at pH 7.0. The availability of the recombinant protein permits a direct comparison of the thermal stabilities of the methylated and unmethylated forms of the protein. Differential scanning calorimetry demonstrates that the native protein is extremely thermostable and unfolds reversibly at pH 6.0 with a Tm of approximately 100 degrees C, while the recombinant protein unfolds at 92.7 degrees C.

Glycation of calmodulin: chemistry and structural and functional consequences.

In the presence of Ca2+ and glucose, calmodulin incorporates 2.5 mol of glucose/mol of protein. In the absence of Ca2+, only 1.5 mol of glucose is incorporated per mole of calmodulin. Glycation of calmodulin is associated with variable reductions in its capacity to activate three Ca2+/calmodulin-dependent brain target enzyme systems, including adenylyl cyclase, phosphodiesterase, and protein kinase. In addition, glycated calmodulin exhibits a 54% reduction in its Ca2+ binding capacity. Isolated CNBr cleavage fragments of glycated calmodulin suggest that glycation follows a nonspecific pattern in that each of seven available lysines is susceptible to modification. A limit observed on the extent of glycation appears related to the accompanying increase in negative charge on the protein. Glycation results in minimal structural rearrangements in calmodulin, and the Ca2+-induced increase in alpha-helix content and radius of gyration is the same for glycated and unmodified calmodulin. Since glycated calmodulin's Ca2+ binding capacity is reduced, this implies that the Ca2+-induced conformational changes in calmodulin do not require all four Ca2+ binding sites to be occupied. Examination of the lysine positions in calmodulin suggests that Ca2+ binding to domains II and IV is sufficient to induce these changes. The functional consequences of calmodulin glycation therefore cannot be attributed to inhibition of these conformational changes. An alternative explanation is that the inhibition arises from interference at the target enzyme binding site by bound glucose. While glycation shows minimal structural effects, a large pH dependence is observed for the alpha-helix content of unmodified calmodulin.(ABSTRACT TRUNCATED AT 250 WORDS)

Base tilt of DNA in various conformations from flow linear dichroism.

We have measured the isotropic absorption (Aiso) and linear dichroism (LD) of Escherichia coli DNA in 0.01 M Na+ (10.4 base pairs per turn of B form), 5.5 M NH4F (10.2 base pairs per turn of B form), and 80% trifluoroethanol (A form) into the vacuum UV spectral region. The reduced dichroism spectrum (LD divided by Aiso) of DNA in the A conformation differed from those of the B conformations, demonstrating that LD is a sensitive method for distinguishing DNA conformation. The reduced dichroism spectra of the B conformations were similar, indicating little change in the orientation of the bases for DNA in high salt. The wavelength dependence of the reduced dichroism indicates that the angle between the base planes and the helix axis is less than 76 degrees for all three conformations of DNA.

Evidence for sequence heterogeneity among the double-stranded RNA segments of Penicillium chrysogenum mycovirus.

We have examined the dsRNA segments of the multipartite virus from Penicillium chrysogenum (ATCC 9480). A fourth RNA segment has been detected recently and, in the present work, we separated the four RNA segments and looked for possible homologies among them by thermal denaturation and electron microscopical heteroduplex studies. Differences were found between the differential melting profiles of the separated RNA segments, and no extensive regions of homology were detected among the various RNA segments by heteroduplex analyses. The results suggest that each RNA segment contains unique sequences. A comparison of the lengths of the RNA segments determined by electron microscopy with those determined by gel electrophoresis suggests that one of the segments has a distinct tertiary structure.