Global barriers to decision makers for prioritizing interventions for obesity.

The treatment of obesity remains underprioritized. New pharmacologic options for the treatment of obesity have shown effectiveness and safety but are not widely reimbursed. Despite the unmet need and the existence of effective prevention and treatment strategies, substantial barriers exist to effectively address obesity as a disease. The purpose of this scoping review was to investigate the barriers for decision makers in prioritizing interventions for obesity and to seek out interconnection between barriers to prevention and treatment. A scoping review was conducted using a systematic search of both scientific databases and Health Technology Assessment (HTA) databases. Studies that addressed barriers to reimbursement or prioritization of obesity treatment and prevention were included. A total of 26 articles and 14 HTAs were included. Four main barriers for decision makers to prioritize new interventions for obesity were identified: perceptions, knowledge, economics, and politics. There was a high degree of interconnectedness among barriers, as well as large overlaps between barriers in relation to bariatric surgery, pharmacologic treatments, and prevention regulation. Multiple barriers exist that impact decision makers in prioritizing interventions for treating obesity. A strong interconnectedness of the barriers was found, indicating a systems approach to improve global prioritization to address the disease. This study suggests that decision makers should carefully consider all main barriers when addressing the obesity epidemic.

Evaluating Cost-Effectiveness of Antiretroviral Therapy over Time: A Cohort and Cost-Effectiveness Study.

OBJECTIVE: To estimate the costs and cost-effectiveness of introducing highly active antiretroviral therapy (HAART) in Denmark based on real-world evidence for the three treatment eras pre-HAART (1985-1995), early HAART (1996-2005), and late HAART (2006-2017). METHODS: We performed a cohort study using Danish clinical and administrative registries to estimate costs, quality-adjusted life-years (QALYs), and life-years (LY) gained per person living with human immunodeficiency virus (PLHIV) in three treatment eras. The study utilized Markov modeling for a health economic evaluation, which summarized inputs from real-world evidence and estimated the cost-effectiveness in 2017 prices of the introduction of HAART in Denmark. We performed deterministic and probabilistic sensitivity analyses to assess the robustness of the results. RESULTS: The total annual costs per PLHIV increased with the introduction of HAART for the index year but decreased in the incremental years and the last year of life. The total lifetime discounted (and undiscounted) cost for an average PLHIV was €91,010 (€128,981) in pre-HAART, €103,130 (€199,062) in early HAART, and €126,317 (€254,964) in late HAART. The estimated incremental cost-effectiveness ratios showed that early HAART was cost-effective compared with pre-HAART with an incremental cost-effectiveness ratio (ICER) of €1378 per QALY, and that late HAART was cost-effective compared with early HAART with an ICER of €7385 per QALY. Sensitivity analyses confirmed cost-effectiveness in all scenarios. CONCLUSIONS: The introduction and implementation of HAART in Danish healthcare was cost-effective, and in some scenarios, even disruptive, i.e., led to both cheaper and more effective care of PLHIV.

Implementing teleophthalmology services to improve cost-effectiveness of the national eye care system.

BACKGROUND AND PURPOSE: Optometrist-assisted and teleophthalmology-enabled referral pathway (OTRP) for community optometry referrals has the potential to improve the capacity and efficiency of eye care delivery systems through risk stratification and limiting the number of improved referrals. This study investigates the expected future costs and benefits of implementing OTRP under various possible organizational set-ups relevant to a Danish context. METHODS: A decision-analytic model (decision tree) with a one-year time horizon was constructed to portray alternative future patient referral pathways for people examined in optometry stores for suspected ocular posterior segment eye disease. The main outcomes were total healthcare costs per patient, average waiting time from eye examination in store until the start of treatment or end of referral pathway, and quality-adjusted life-years (QALY) gained. The economic evaluation compares the general ophthalmologist referral pathway (GO-RP) with a potential reimbursement model for the optometrist-assisted teleophthalmology referral pathways (R-OTRP) and a procurement model for the optometrist-assisted teleophthalmology referral pathways (P-OTRP). RESULTS: The cost per individual with suspected ocular posterior segment eye disease was estimated to be £116 for GO-RP and £75 and £94 for P-OTRP and R-OTRP respectively. The average waiting time for diagnosis or end of referral pathway was 25 weeks for GO-RP and 5.8 and 5.7 for P-OTPR and R-OTPR respectively. QALY gain was 0.15 for P-OTRP/R-OTRP compared to 0.06 for GO-RP. CONCLUSION: OTRP is effective in reducing unnecessary referrals and waiting times, increasing patients' HRQoL, and decreasing the costs of diagnosing individuals with suspected ocular posterior segment eye disease.

Healthcare Costs at the End of Life for Patients with Non-cancer Diseases and Cancer in Denmark.

OBJECTIVES: To examine costs of care from a healthcare sector perspective within 1 year before death in patients with non-cancer diseases and patients with cancer. METHODS: This nationwide registry-based study identified all Danish citizens dying from major non-cancer diseases or cancer in 2010-2016. Applying the cost-of-illness method, we included costs of somatic hospitals, including hospital-based specialist palliative care, primary care, prescription medicine and hospice expressed in 2022 euros. Costs of patients with non-cancer diseases and cancer were compared using regression analyses adjusting for sex, age, comorbidity, residential region, marital/cohabitation status and income level. RESULTS: Within 1 year before death, mean total healthcare costs were €27,185 [95% confidence interval (CI) €26,970-27,401] per patient with non-cancer disease (n = 109,723) and €51,348 (95% CI €51,098-51,597) per patient with cancer (n = 108,889). The adjusted relative total healthcare costs, i.e. the ratio of the mean costs, of patients with non-cancer diseases was 0.64 (95% CI 0.63-0.66) at 12 months before death and 0.91 (95% CI 0.90-0.92) within 30 days before death compared with patients with cancer. Mean costs of hospital-based specialist palliative care and hospice in the year leading up to death were €17 (95% CI €13-20) and €90 (95% CI €77-102) per patient with non-cancer disease but €1552 (95% CI €1506-1598) and €3411 (95% CI €3342-3480) per patient with cancer. CONCLUSIONS: Within 1 year before death, total healthcare costs, mainly driven by hospital costs, were substantially lower for patients with non-cancer diseases compared with patients with cancer. Moreover, the costs of hospital-based specialist palliative care and hospice were minimal for patients with non-cancer diseases.

Does a corticosteroid injection plus exercise or exercise alone add to the effect of patient advice and a heel cup for patients with plantar fasciopathy? A randomised clinical trial.

OBJECTIVE: To compare the effectiveness of patient advice plus heel cup alone (PA) versus PA and lower limb exercise (PAX) versus PAX plus corticosteroid injection (PAXI) to improve self-reported pain in patients with plantar fasciopathy. METHODS: We recruited 180 adults with plantar fasciopathy confirmed by ultrasonography for this prospectively registered three-armed, randomised, single-blinded superiority trial. Patients were randomly allocated to PA (n=62), PA plus self-dosed lower limb heavy-slow resistance training consisting of heel raises (PAX) (n=59), or PAX plus an ultrasound-guided injection of 1 mL triamcinolone 20 mg/mL (PAXI) (n=59). The primary outcome was changed in the pain domain of the Foot Health Status Questionnaire (ranging from 0 'worst' to 100 'best') from baseline to the 12-week follow-up. The minimal important difference in the pain domain is 14.1 points. The outcome was collected at baseline and at 4, 12, 26, and 52 weeks. RESULTS: The primary analysis found a statistically significant difference between PA and PAXI after 12 weeks favouring PAXI (adjusted mean difference: -9.1 (95% CI -16.8 to -1.3; p=0.023)) and over 52 weeks (adjusted mean difference: -5.2 (95% CI -10.4 to -0.1; p=0.045)). At no follow-up did the mean difference between groups exceed the pre-specified minimal important difference. No statistically significant difference was found between PAX and PAXI or between PA and PAX at any time. CONCLUSION: No clinically relevant between-group differences were found after 12 weeks. The results indicate that combining a corticosteroid injection with exercise is not superior to exercise or no exercise. TRIAL REGISTRATION NUMBER: NCT03804008.

A Systematic Review of Cost-Effectiveness Studies of Newer Non-Insulin Antidiabetic Drugs: Trends in Decision-Analytical Models for Modelling of Type 2 Diabetes Mellitus.

BACKGROUND: We performed a systematic overview of the cost-effectiveness analyses (CEAs) comparing Non-insulin antidiabetic drugs (NIADs) with other NIADs for the treatment of type 2 diabetes mellitus (T2DM), using decision-analytical modelling (DAM), focusing on both the economic results and the underlying methodological choices. METHODS: Eligible studies were CEAs using DAM to compare NIADs within the glucagon-like peptide-1 (GLP1) receptor agonists, sodium-glucose cotransporter-2 (SGLT2) inhibitors, or dipeptidyl peptidase-4 (DPP4) inhibitor classes with other NIADs within those classes for the treatment of T2DM. The PubMed, Embase and Econlit databases were searched from 1 January 2018 to 15 November 2022. Two reviewers screened the studies for relevance by titles and abstracts and then for eligibility via full-text screening, extracted the data from the full texts and appendices, and then stored the data in a spreadsheet. RESULTS: The search yielded 890 records and 50 studies were eligible for inclusion. The studies were mainly based on a European setting (60%). Industry sponsorship was found in 82% of studies. The CORE diabetes model was used in 48% of the studies. GLP1 and SGLT2 products were the main comparators in 31 and 16 studies, respectively, while one study had DPP4 and two had no easily discernible main comparator. Direct comparison between SGLT2 and GLP1 occurred in 19 studies. At a class level, SGLT2 dominated GLP1 in six studies and was cost effective against GLP1 once as part of a treatment pathway. GLP1 was cost effective in nine studies and not cost effective against SGLT2 in three studies. At a product level, oral and injectable semaglutide, and empagliflozin, were cost effective against other within-class products. Injectable and oral semaglutide were more frequently found cost effective in these comparisons, with some conflicting results. Most of the modelled cohorts and treatment effects were sourced from randomised controlled trials. The following model assumptions varied depending on the class of the main comparator: choice of and reasoning behind risk equations, the time until the treatment switch, and how often the comparators were discontinued. Diabetes-related complications were emphasised on par with quality-adjusted life-years as model outputs. The main quality issues were regarding the description of alternatives, the perspective of analysis, the measurement of costs and consequences, and patient subgroups. CONCLUSION: The included CEAs using DAMs have limitations that hinder their ability to inform decision makers on the cost-effective choice: lack of updated reasoning behind the choice of key model assumptions, over-reliance on risk equations based on older treatment practices, and sponsorship bias. The question of which NIAD is cost effective for the treatment of which T2DM patient is a pressing one and the answer remains unclear.

Cost-effectiveness of targeted treatment vs chemoimmunotherapy in treatment-naive unfit CLL without TP53 aberrations.

Several targeted treatments, such as venetoclax + obinutuzumab (VenO) and ibrutinib, have been developed to treat patients with treatment-naive chronic lymphocytic leukemia (CLL) and have been shown to improve progression-free survival compared with chlorambucil + obinutuzumab (ClbO). However, novel targeted agents are associated with a significant cost investment. The objective of this study was to investigate the cost-effectiveness of VenO compared with ClbO and ibrutinib in treatment-naive CLL without del17p/TP53 mutation in Denmark. We used a decision-analytic modeling approach to simulate hypothetical cohorts of patients with CLL from the initiation of first-line treatment to death, including the full treatment pathway and second-line therapy. VenO, ClbO, or ibrutinib was included as first-line therapy followed by either Ven + rituximab or ibrutinib. Model outcomes were expected quality-adjusted life years (QALYs), life years (LYs), and cost per patient, which were used to calculate incremental cost-effectiveness ratios (ICERs) with a willingness to pay from €23 600 to €35 600 per QALY. Compared with ClbO, VenO was associated with a QALY gain of 1.30 (1.42 LYs) over a lifetime. The incremental cost was €12 360, resulting in an ICER of €9491 per QALY gained, indicating that VenO is cost-effective. Compared with VenO, ibrutinib was associated with a QALY gain of 0.82 (1.74 LYs) but at a substantially increased incremental cost of €247 488 over a lifetime horizon. The ICER was €302 156 per QALY, indicating that ibrutinib in first-line treatment would not be considered cost-effective in Danish health care, compared with VenO. Future analyses in fit patients with CLL are needed to determine the cost-effectiveness of VenO.

Cost of non-communicable diseases in people living with HIV in the Central Denmark Region.

OBJECTIVE: To estimate the economic burden of non-communicable diseases (NCDs) in people living with HIV (PLWH) in Denmark. METHODS: We conducted a cohort study using population-based Danish medical registries including all adult residents of the Central Denmark Region registered with a first-time HIV-diagnosis during the period 2006-2017. For each PLWH, we matched 10 persons without HIV from the background population by birth year, sex and municipality of residence. Information on healthcare utilization and costs for the PLWH and non-HIV cohorts was retrieved from register data. For each cohort, we estimated the annual costs for major disease categories (HIV care, other somatic care, and psychiatric care) in the period from 3 years before to 9 years after diagnosis/matching date. RESULTS: We identified 407 PLWH and 4070 persons from the background population. The total healthcare costs during the study period were approximately three times higher for PLWH compared to the non-HIV cohort (€76 198 vs. €23 692). Average annual cost of hospital care, primary care and selected prescription medicine was estimated to be €6987 per year in the years after the diagnosis compared to €2083 per year in the non-HIV cohort. In PLWH, the cost of NCDs and psychiatric care was approximately two times higher than the cost of HIV care. CONCLUSION: PLWH have higher healthcare costs stemming from three areas: excess cost due to the HIV infection, the treatment of NCDs, and psychiatric care.

Competitive tenders on analogue hospital pharmaceuticals in Denmark 2017-2020.

BACKGROUND: Competitive tenders on pharmaceuticals are one of the most effective cost-containment instruments in healthcare systems. Its effectiveness has been demonstrated, among other things, in markets for generic medicine and biosimilars. In Denmark, an internationally unique model for competitive tenders on analogue substitutable pharmaceuticals has been developed and implemented for all public hospitals. METHODS: We obtained data on all analogue competitive tenders carried out by the Danish Medicines Council from its foundation on January 1, 2017, to October 9, 2020. We calculated univariate descriptive statistics, pairwise correlations and made a multiple regression analysis on tender savings. RESULTS: Average annual saving on hospital pharmaceutical purchase prices was 44.1% ranging from 0.4% to 92.8% between therapeutic areas and areas of indication. There was a significant positive correlation between tender savings and the number of competitors participating in the tender, and a significant negative correlation between tender savings and the number of days since market authorization. CONCLUSIONS: This study finds analogue tenders to be similar in effect and mechanism to competitive tenders in markets for generic medicine and biosimilars. It supports the increasing number of empirical findings that competitive tendering has a high potential to generate substantial savings on healthcare budgets.

The Clinical Effectiveness of Blended Cognitive Behavioral Therapy Compared With Face-to-Face Cognitive Behavioral Therapy for Adult Depression: Randomized Controlled Noninferiority Trial.

BACKGROUND: Internet-based cognitive behavioral therapy (iCBT) has been demonstrated to be cost- and clinically effective. There is a need, however, for increased therapist contact for some patient groups. Combining iCBT with traditional face-to-face (FtF) consultations in a blended format may produce a new treatment format (B-CBT) with multiple benefits from both traditional CBT and iCBT, such as individual adaptation, lower costs than traditional therapy, wide geographical and temporal availability, and possibly lower threshold to implementation. OBJECTIVE: The primary aim of this study is to compare directly the clinical effectiveness of B-CBT with FtF-CBT for adult major depressive disorder. METHODS: A 2-arm randomized controlled noninferiority trial compared B-CBT for adult depression with treatment as usual (TAU). The trial was researcher blinded (unblinded for participants and clinicians). B-CBT comprised 6 sessions of FtF-CBT alternated with 6-8 web-based CBT self-help modules. TAU comprised 12 sessions of FtF-CBT. All participants were aged 18 or older and met the diagnostic criteria for major depressive disorder and were recruited via a national iCBT clinic. The primary outcome was change in depression severity on the 9-item Patient Health Questionnaire (PHQ-9). Secondary analyses included client satisfaction (8-item Client Satisfaction Questionnaire [CSQ-8]), patient expectancy (Credibility and Expectancy Questionnaire [CEQ]), and working (Working Alliance Inventory [WAI] and Technical Alliance Inventory [TAI]). The primary outcome was analyzed by a mixed effects model including all available data from baseline, weekly measures, 3-, 6, and 12-month follow-up. RESULTS: A total of 76 individuals were randomized, with 38 allocated to each treatment group. Age ranged from 18 to 71 years (SD 13.96) with 56 (74%) females. Attrition rate was 20% (n=15), which was less in the FtF-CBT group (n=6, 16%) than in the B-CBT group (n=9, 24%). As many as 53 (70%) completed 9 or more sessions almost equally distributed between the groups (nFtF-CBT=27, 71%; nB-CBT=26, 68%). PHQ-9 reduced 11.38 points in the FtF-CBT group and 8.10 in the B-CBT group. At 6 months, the mean difference was a mere 0.17 points. The primary analyses confirmed large and significant within-group reductions in both groups (FtF-CBT: ß=-.03; standard error [SE] 0.00; P<.001 and B-CBT: ß=-.02; SE 0.00; P<.001). A small but significant interaction effect was observed between groups (ß=.01; SE 0.00; P=.03). Employment status influenced the outcome differently between groups, where the B-CBT group was seen to profit more from not being full-time employed than the FtF group. CONCLUSIONS: With large within-group effects in both treatment arms, the study demonstrated feasibility of B-CBT in Denmark. At 6 months' follow-up, there appeared to be no difference between the 2 treatment formats, with a small but nonsignificant difference at 12 months. The study seems to demonstrate that B-CBT is capable of producing treatment effects that are close to FtF-CBT and that completion rates and satisfaction rates were comparable between groups. However, the study was limited by small sample size and should be interpreted with caution. TRIAL REGISTRATION: ClinicalTrials.gov NCT02796573; https://clinicaltrials.gov/ct2/show/NCT02796573. INTERNATIONAL REGISTERED REPORT IDENTIFIER (IRRID): RR2-10.1186/s12888-016-1140-y.

Cost Effectiveness of Patient Self-Managed Warfarin Compared with Direct Oral Anticoagulants in Atrial Fibrillation: An Economic Evaluation in a Danish Healthcare Sector Setting.

BACKGROUND: Patient self-managed anticoagulant treatment with warfarin (PSM) has been proposed as an alternative to direct oral anticoagulants (DOACs) in patients with non-valvular atrial fibrillation (NVAF); however, direct evidence on the cost effectiveness of PSM compared with DOACs is lacking. We aimed to evaluate the cost effectiveness of PSM versus DOACs for NVAF patients in the Danish healthcare setting using a model-based cost-utility analysis. METHODS: A cost-utility analysis was performed using a decision-analytic model including two treatment alternatives: continuous PSM and DOACs. The analysis was performed from an extended Danish healthcare sector perspective, including patient-paid costs of medication related to the anticoagulant treatment, with a lifetime horizon. Inputs for the model comprised of probabilities of events, costs in Danish estimates, when possible, and effect in utilities. The probabilities of events are primarily based on real-life data from a direct comparison of PSM and DOACs. The results are presented as the incremental cost-effectiveness ratio (ICER) with an assumed cost-effectiveness threshold of £20,000/quality-adjusted life-year (QALY). Both deterministic and probabilistic sensitivity analyses were performed to investigate the robustness of the results. RESULTS: The base-analysis showed that PSM was dominant, with a decreased cost of £8495 and an increased QALY accumulation of 0.23 per patient (ICER = -£36,935/QALY). All deterministic sensitivity analyses indicated that PSM was dominant or at least cost effective. The probabilistic sensitivity analysis showed that 95% of the iterations were cost effective. CONCLUSIONS: The present study found that PSM is dominant (i.e., both more effective and cost saving) compared with DOACs, adding to the scarce evidence of the comparative cost effectiveness of PSM and DOACs in NVAF.

The analogue substitution model: Introducing competition in the absence of generic substitution in Danish hospitals.

Increasingly advanced medicines have created monopolies in treatment areas with no viable options for generic substitution due to patent protection. As health care systems are increasingly under pressure to deliver health care improvements, costs become prohibitive as budgets are under pressure. To create financial flexibility, Danish regional authorities have over the period from 2009 until today developed, implemented, and gradually increased the use of a new model for analogue medicine substitution. The model introduces competitive tenders among patented medicines by declaring these medicines therapeutically equivalent in the treatment of specific diseases and thereby creating new opportunities for reducing annual medicine expenses. The model is based on enhanced collaboration among the health technology assessment (HTA) body, the procurement body, and the hospital owner, and it effectively covers medicine expenditure and cost-effectiveness while ensuring standardized treatments across hospitals and regions. The model is internationally unique in integrating several healthcare stakeholders and balancing their respective agendas to generate optimized outcomes for the healthcare system as a whole. However, some challenges persist, as the HTA process is resource and time consuming. Future research can show whether there are other challenges connected with the model.

Mobile Diary App Versus Paper-Based Diary Cards for Patients With Borderline Personality Disorder: Economic Evaluation.

BACKGROUND: The cost-effectiveness of using a mobile diary app as an adjunct in dialectical behavior therapy (DBT) in patients with borderline personality disorder is unknown. OBJECTIVE: This study aims to perform an economic evaluation of a mobile diary app compared with paper-based diary cards in DBT treatment for patients with borderline personality disorder in a psychiatric outpatient facility. METHODS: This study was conducted alongside a pragmatic, multicenter, randomized controlled trial. The participants were recruited at 5 Danish psychiatric outpatient facilities and were randomized to register the emotions, urges, and skills used in a mobile diary app or on paper-based diary cards. The participants in both groups received DBT delivered by the therapists. A cost-consequence analysis with a time horizon of 12 months was performed. Consequences included quality-adjusted life years (QALYs), depression severity, borderline severity, suicidal behavior, health care use, treatment compliance, and system usability. All relevant costs were included. Focus group interviews were conducted with patients, therapists, researchers, and industry representatives to discuss the potential advantages and disadvantages of using a mobile diary app. RESULTS: A total of 78 participants were included in the analysis. An insignificantly higher number of participants in the paper group dropped out before the start of treatment (P=.07). Of those starting treatment, participants in the app group had an average of 37.1 (SE 27.55) more days of treatment and recorded an average of 3.16 (SE 5.10) more skills per week than participants in the paper group. Participants in both groups had a QALY gain and a decrease in depression severity, borderline severity, and suicidal behavior. Significant differences were found in favor of the paper group for both QALY gain (adjusted difference -0.054; SE 0.03) and reduction in depression severity (adjusted difference -1.11; SE 1.57). The between-group difference in total costs ranged from US $107.37 to US $322.10 per participant during the 12 months. The use of services in the health care sector was similar across both time points and groups (difference: psychiatric hospitalization <5 and <5; general practice -1.32; SE 3.68 and 2.02; SE 3.19). Overall, the patients showed high acceptability and considered the app as being easy to use. Therapists worried about potential negative influences on the therapist-patient interaction from new work tasks accompanying the introduction of the new technology but pointed at innovation potential from digital database registrations. CONCLUSIONS: This study suggests both positive and negative consequences of mobile diary apps as adjuncts to DBT compared with paper diary cards. More research is needed to draw conclusions regarding its cost-effectiveness. TRIAL REGISTRATION: ClinicalTrials.gov NCT03191565; http://clinicaltrials.gov/ct2/show/NCT03191565. INTERNATIONAL REGISTERED REPORT IDENTIFIER (IRRID): RR2-10.2196/17737.

The Cost-Effectiveness of Empagliflozin Versus Liraglutide Treatment in People with Type 2 Diabetes and Established Cardiovascular Disease.

INTRODUCTION: The increasing financial burden associated with diabetes treatment presents a challenge to healthcare systems worldwide. Recently, clinical guidelines have focussed on patients with type 2 diabetes (T2D) and established cardiovascular disease (CVD) and recommend a sodium-glucose co-transporter 2 (SGLT2) inhibitor or a glucagon-like peptide 1 (GLP-1) receptor agonist as second-line treatment after metformin or independently of baseline glycated haemogloblin A1c (HbA1c). In Danish clinical guidelines, empagliflozin and liraglutide are highlighted owing to their positive impact on mortality. Thus, this study aimed to assess the cost-effectiveness of empagliflozin plus standard of care (SoC) versus liraglutide plus SoC in Danish patients with T2D and established CVD using a lifetime and 5-year horizon. METHODS: The IQVIA Core Diabetes Model (CDM) was calibrated to reproduce the clinical event rates observed in the cardiovascular outcome trial EMPA-REG OUTCOME. Network meta-analysis provided the relative risks for cardiovascular outcomes with empagliflozin versus liraglutide. Microvascular outcomes were predicted by standard CDM risk equations. The relative treatment effect was assumed for 9 years after which treatment was switched to basal-bolus therapy. The CDM was populated with Danish costs of events and drug costs at price-level 2019. Discounting of 4% was applied. RESULTS: Over a lifetime horizon, CDM projected 9.858 and 9.667 life years, 6.162 and 5.976 quality-adjusted life years (QALY) and DKK 478,026 (€64,079) and DKK 500,025 (€67,027) in total costs for empagliflozin plus SoC and liraglutide plus SoC, respectively. For a 5-year horizon, the results were 4.189 and 4.140 life years, 2.746 and 2.655 QALY, as well as DKK 123,413 (€16,543) and DKK 161,783 (€21,687), respectively. Empagliflozin was the dominant treatment alternative. Sensitivity analyses showed the robustness of these results. CONCLUSION: The cost-effectiveness analysis suggests that empagliflozin plus SoC is dominant compared to liraglutide plus SoC in Denmark over both lifetime and 5-year horizons.

The Danish EQ-5D-5L Value Set: A Hybrid Model Using cTTO and DCE Data.

OBJECTIVES: Quality-adjusted life-years (QALYs) are expected to be used for priority setting of hospital-dispensed medicines in Denmark from 2021. The aim of this study was to develop the first Danish value set for the EQ-5D-5L based on interviews with a representative sample of the Danish adult population. METHODS: A nationally representative sample based on age (> 18 years), gender, education, and geographical region was recruited using data provided by Statistics Denmark. Computer-assisted personal interviews were carried out using the EQ-VT 2.1. Respondents each valued ten health states using composite time trade-off (cTTO) and seven health states using discrete-choice experiment (DCE). Different predictive models were explored using cTTO and DCE data alone or in combination as hybrid models. Model performance was assessed using logical consistency. RESULTS: A total of 1014 interviews were included in the analyses. The sample was representative of the Danish adult population, though the sample contained slightly more respondents with higher education than in the general population. Only the heteroscedastic censored hybrid model combining cTTO and DCE data yielded consistent results, and hence was chosen for modelling the final Danish value set. The predicted values ranged from - 0.757 to 1, and anxiety/depression was the dimension assigned most value by respondents. CONCLUSIONS: This study established the Danish EQ-5D-5L value set, which represents the preferences of the Danish general population, and is expected to provide key input for healthcare decision-making in a Danish context.

Health economic evaluations comparing faecal microbiota transplantation with antibiotics for treatment of recurrent Clostridioides difficile infection: a systematic review.

BACKGROUND: Faecal microbiota transplantation (FMT) is increasingly being used in the treatment of recurrent Clostridioides difficile infection (rCDI). Health economic evaluations may support decision-making regarding the implementation of FMT in clinical practice. Previous reviews have highlighted several methodological concerns in published health economic evaluations examining FMT. However, the impact of these concerns on the conclusions of the studies remains unclear. AIMS: To present an overview and assess the methodological quality of health economic evaluations that compare FMT with antibiotics for treatment of rCDI. Furthermore, we aimed to evaluate the degree to which any methodological concerns would affect conclusions about the cost-effectiveness of FMT. METHODS: We conducted a systematic literature review based on a search in seven medical databases up to 16 July 2020. We included research articles reporting on full health economic evaluations comparing FMT with antibiotic treatment for rCDI. General study characteristics and input estimates for costs, effectiveness and utilities were extracted from the articles. The quality of the studies was assessed by two authors using the Drummonds ten-point checklist. RESULTS: We identified seven cost-utility analyses. All studies applied decision-analytic modelling and compared various FMT delivery methods with vancomycin, fidaxomicin, metronidazole or a combination of vancomycin and bezlotoxumab. The time horizons used in the analyses varied from 78 days to lifelong, and the perspectives differed between a societal, a healthcare system or a third-party payer perspective. The applied willingness-to-pay threshold ranged from 20,000 to 68,000 Great Britain pound sterling (GBP) per quality-adjusted life-year (QALY). FMT was considered the most cost-effective alternative in all studies. In five of the health economic evaluations, FMT was both more effective and cost saving than antibiotic treatment alternatives. The quality of the articles varied, and we identified several methodological concerns. CONCLUSIONS: Economic evaluations consistently reported that FMT is a cost-effective and potentially cost-saving treatment for rCDI. Based on a comparison with recent evidence within the area, the multiple methodological concerns seem not to change this conclusion. Therefore, implementing FMT for rCDI in clinical practice should be strongly considered.

Rate and impact of duodenoscope contamination: A systematic review and meta-analysis.

BACKGROUND: Multiple infection outbreaks have been linked to contaminated duodenoscopes worldwide. However, the contamination rate of patient-ready duodenoscopes varies highly amongst published studies testing this subject. We aimed to estimate the contamination rate of reprocessed patient-ready duodenoscopes for endoscopic retrograde cholangio-pancreatography (ERCP) based on currently available data. METHODS: We searched the PubMed and Embase databases from January 1, 2010 until March 10, 2020, for citations investigating contamination rates of reprocessed patient-ready duodenoscopes. Studies not assessing other types of endoscopes than duodenoscopes were excluded from the analysis. Study eligibility and data extraction was evaluated by three reviewers independently. A random-effects model (REM) based on the proportion distribution was used to calculate the pooled total contamination rate of reprocessed patient-ready duodenoscopes. Subgroup analyses were carried out to assess contamination rates when using different reprocessing methods by comparing single high-level disinfection (HLD) with double HLD and ethylene oxide (EtO) gas sterilization. Additionally, we investigated the contamination rate between studies conducted following an outbreak compared to non-outbreak-initiated studies. FINDINGS: We identified 15 studies that fulfilled the inclusion, which included 925 contaminated duodenoscopes from 13,112 samples. The calculated total weighted contamination rate was 15.25% ± 0.018 (95% confidence interval [Cl]: 11.74% - 18.75%). The contamination rate after only using HLD was 16.14% ± 0.019 (95% Cl: 12.43% - 19.85%) and after using either dHLD or EtO the contamination rate decreased to 9.20% ± 0.025 (95% Cl: 4.30% - 14.10%). Studies conducted following an outbreak (n=4) showed a 5.72% ± 0.034 (95% Cl: 0.00% - 12.43%) contamination rate, and non-outbreak-initiated studies (n=11) revealed a contamination rate of 21.50% ± 0.031 (95% Cl: 15.35% - 27.64%). INTERPRETATION: This is the first meta-analysis to estimate the contamination rate of patient-ready duodenoscopes used for ERCP. Based on the available literature, our analysis demonstrates that there is a 15.25% contamination rate of reprocessed patient-ready duodenoscopes. Additionally, the analysis indicates that dHLD and EtO reprocessing methods are superior to single HLD but still not efficient in regards to cleaning the duodenoscopes properly. Furthermore, studies conducted following an outbreak did not entail a higher contamination rate compared to non-outbreak-initiated studies. FUNDING: The authors received no financial support for the research, authorship, and/or publication of this article.

Attitudes Towards Accreditation and Quality Improvement Activities Among Hospital Employees in Iran: A Quantitative Study.

PURPOSE: The hospital accreditation system in Iran is relatively young, having been introduced in 2012. Therefore, there is a real need for research on the status and impact of hospital accreditation in Iran. The purpose of this study was to evaluate and compare attitudes towards accreditation and quality improvement activities among hospital employees, specifically the attitudes towards the impact of accreditation on the quality of healthcare and its benefits in Iran. MATERIALS AND METHODS: A cross-sectional survey was carried out at 23 teaching hospitals in three metropolises in Iran, all of which successfully passed national accreditation surveys. Some 1213 hospital managers, administrative staff, nurses, and para-clinical staff participated in the survey. The main outcome measures were quality results, and the activities related to quality improvement include senior managers' commitment and support, strategic quality planning, education and training, rewards and recognition, quality management, use of data, the involvement of professionals in accreditation, and accreditation benefits. The questionnaire was applied using a 5-point Likert scale ranging from 1 "strongly disagree" to 5 "strongly agree". One-way analysis of variance (ANOVA) was used to compare mean values between respondent groups. RESULTS: Among nurses and managers, there was low support for accreditation and even less among para-clinical staff who fail to see accreditation having a positive impact on healthcare quality. Also, nurses' attitudes toward the accreditation benefits were more positive compared with the two other groups. Staff stated that the main reasons for low support were a lack of education and training to act upon the accreditation survey results and a lack of management visibility and support for quality improvement. CONCLUSION: Improving quality through means of hospital accreditation is a complex process with high demands for management and employees. Questionnaires on employees' attitudes and perceptions of the impact of accreditation and quality improvement-related activities in the hospitals can provide valuable information on the current problems of a hospital accreditation program.

Is telehealthcare for heart failure patients cost-effective? An economic evaluation alongside the Danish TeleCare North heart failure trial.

OBJECTIVE: This study aimed to assess the cost-effectiveness of telehealthcare in heart failure patients as add-on to usual care. DESIGN: A cost-utility analysis was conducted from a public payer perspective alongside the randomised controlled TeleCare North trial. SETTING: The North Denmark Region, Denmark. PARTICIPANTS: The study included 274 heart failure patients with self-reported New York Heart Association class II-IV. INTERVENTIONS: Patients in the intervention group were provided with a Telekit consisting of a tablet, a digital blood pressure monitor, and a scale and were instructed to perform measurements one to two times a week. The responsibility of the education, instructions and monitoring of the heart failure (HF) patients was placed on municipality nurses trained in HF and telemonitoring. Both groups received usual care. OUTCOME MEASURES: Cost-effectiveness was reported as incremental net monetary benefit (NMB). A micro-costing approach was applied to evaluate the derived savings in the first year in the public health sector. Quality-adjusted life-years (QALY) gained were estimated using the EuroQol 5-Dimensions 5-Levels questionnaire at baseline and at a 1-year follow-up. RESULTS: Data for 274 patients were included in the main analysis. The telehealthcare solution provided a positive incremental NMB of £5164. The 1-year adjusted QALY difference between the telehealthcare solution and the usual care group was 0.0034 (95% CI: -0.0711 to 0.0780). The adjusted difference in costs was -£5096 (95% CI: -8736 to -1456) corresponding to a reduction in total healthcare costs by 35%. All sensitivity analyses showed the main results were robust. CONCLUSIONS: The TeleCare North solution for monitoring HF was highly cost-effective. There were significant cost savings on hospitalisations, primary care contacts and total costs. TRIAL REGISTRATION NUMBER: ClinicalTrials.gov: NCT02860013.