Emergence of tick-borne encephalitis in new endemic areas in Austria: 42 years of surveillance.

Human infections with tick-borne encephalitis (TBE)virus are a public health concern in certain regions of Europe, central and eastern Asia. Expansions of endemic areas and increased incidences have been associated with different factors including ecological changes supporting tick reproduction, socioeconomic changes increasing human outdoor activities and climatic changes favouring virus circulation in natural foci. Austria is among the most strongly affected countries in Central Europe, but the annual number of cases has strongly declined due to vaccination. Here,we have analysed changes of the incidence of TBE in the unvaccinated population of all federal states of Austria over a period of 42 years. The overall incidence in Austria has remained constant, but new strongly affected endemic regions have emerged in alpine valleys in the west of Austria. In parallel, the incidence in low-land regions in the north-east of the country is decreasing. There is no evidence for a shift to higher altitudes of infection sites in the traditional TBE zones,but the average altitudes of some newly established endemic areas in the west are significantly higher. Our analyses underscore the focal nature of TBE endemic areas and the potential of TBE virus to emerge in previously unaffected regions.

[Analysis of the efficiency of tick-borne encephalitis vaccination in the population in the natural foci of Austria].

Tick-borne encephalitis (TBE), the preventive measure against which is vaccination, is a disease caused by flavivirus (TBE virus). The infection is common in many European countries and in much of Central and Eastern Asia. Formaline-killed whole-virion high-purified vaccine inactivated is widely used for immunization of the population in Europe; however, the coverage of the population with vaccination greatly differs in the country where the natural foci of TBE are recorded. The exception is Austria where 88% of the population has been at least vaccinated against TBE and 58% has been regularly inoculated as evidenced by the officially recommended scheme. The present study has analyzed the efficacy of the above vaccine made in Austria in 2000 to 2006 in different age groups on the basis of documentary data on the cases of admissions for TBE among the unvaccinated and vaccinated and estimated the incidence of this disease in these groups, by taking into account the results of representative surveys. Our investigation has demonstrated that the efficiency of vaccination by the officially recommended scheme among the regularly inoculated persons is about 99% without statistically significant differences between the age groups. This result was observed after the first two vaccinations before completion of the basic course of vaccination, i.e. before the third vaccination; however, the efficiency of vaccination was substantially lower (about 95%) in the persons who had been irregularly inoculated, as shown by the records, i.e. they received the vaccine by the unofficial scheme. The findings confirm the high efficiency of vaccination of the population of Austria against TBE by the officially recommended scheme, which is shown in the prevention of about 2800 cases of TE.

Nonlinear genetic relationships between traits and their implications on the estimation of genetic parameters.

To estimate nonlinear genetic relationships between traits, formulas based on the paternal halfsib analysis theory were derived. To illustrate the usefulness of the formulas, a series of data sets with halfsib structure for some preselected parameters and sample size situations were generated by means of Monte Carlo techniques. When a nonlinear relationship in the form of a polynomial relationship of degree two is present, the linear and quadratic regression coefficients can be estimated from a paternal halfsib analysis without bias. Some of the traditional linear genetic parameters need correction; however, their value is limited if the relationship between two traits is nonlinear. Although regression coefficients may be estimated appropriately in many situations, the application of the described method is restricted to situations in which the causal flow between the traits involved is clear and the heritability of the determining trait is larger than approximately .10. Further work should be directed to investigation of possibilities for including such parameters in selection decisions in a formalized way.

Correlation between purebred and crossbred performance under a two-locus model with additive by additive interaction.

SUMMARY: The behaviour of the genetic correlation between purebred and crossbred performance (rpc) was studied under a model with two loci, in populations with varying gene frequencies, degrees of dominance, and (additive by additive) epistasis. The value of rpc depends not only on dominance and epistasis, but also on gene-frequency differences between the parental populations. The value of rpc is unity if neither epistasis nor dominance exist, or if there are the same gene frequencies in both purebred populations. Special ratios of the assumed genotypic effects and gene-frequency differences between the parental populations may also cause a rpc of unity. Therefore, a high rpc is possible with small gene-frequency differences, small non-additive gene effects, or certain ratios of the assumed genotypic effects and gene frequencies. Further, overdominance is not necessary for a negative rpc. The correlation becomes negative in the case of partial dominance in combination with epistasis and certain gene frequencies. In general, rpc decreases with increasing gene-frequency difference or increasing dominance and/or epistatic effects. ZUSAMMENFASSUNG: orrelation zwischen den Leistungen von Reinzucht- und Kreuzungstieren unter einem Zwei-Locus Modell mit Additiv mal Additiv Interaktion Das Verhalten der genetischen Korrelation zwischen den Leistungen von Reinzucht- und Kreuzungstieren (r(pc) ) wurde anhand eines Zwei-Locus Modelles in Abhängigkeit von Genfrequenzen, Dominanzgrad und Epistasie (additiv mal additiv) untersucht. Die Größe von r(pc) hängt nicht nur von Dominanzgrad und Epistasie, sondern auch von der Genfrequenzdifferenz zwischen den elterlichen Populationen ab. Der Wert von r(pc) beträgt immer eins, wenn weder Dominanz noch Epistasie wirken oder die gleichen Genfrequenzen in beiden Elternpopulationen vorliegen. Bestimmte Verhältnisse der unterstellten genotypischen Effekte und Genfrequenzdifferenzen zwischen den Elternpopulationen können ebenfalls zu einem r(pc) -Wert von eins führen. Daher ist es nicht möglich zu unterscheiden, ob ein hoher Wert für r(pc) durch geringe Genfrequenzdifferenzen, geringe nichtadditive Geneffekte oder bestimmte Verhältnisse der vorliegenden genotypischen Effekte und Genfrequenzdifferenzen zueinander verursacht wird. Weiters konnte gezeigt werden, daß keine Überdominanz für das Auftreten von nagativen Korrelationen notwendig ist. Die Korrelation wird auch dann negativ, wenn partielle Dominanz in Kombination mit Epistasie und bestimmten Genfrequenzen vorliegt. Im allegemeinen nimmt die genetische Korrlelation zwischen den Leistungen von Reinzucht- und Kreuzungstieren mit steigenden Genfrequenzdifferenzen oder steigenden Dominanz- und/oder Epistasieeffekten ab.

Impact of dominance and epistasis on the genetic make-up of simulated populations under selection: a model development.

SUMMARY: A two-locus genetic model was used to simulate different levels of additive, dominance, and additive-by-additive genetic effects. The character under phenotypic selection was controlled by 30 pairs of diallelic loci, located on different chromosomes. Initial gene frequencies were set to 0.5 for all loci and the recombination probability was 0.20 between adjacent loci. The broad-sense heritability was varied at levels of 0.03, 0.30, and 0.60. After building up a random mating population with 200 males and 400 females, the phenotypic best individuals per year were selected over 200 years (approx. 35 overlapping generations), keeping the population size constant. The results of the simulations showed extreme differences between eight models with the same initial heritability, but different amounts of additive, dominance, and additive-by-additive variance components. A model with additive, dominance, and additive-by-additive variance at the same initial magnitude, and negative dominance and positive additive-by-additive effect, led to the highest genetic response in the long term for all heritabilities simulated. The additive model showed the best selection advance in the short term. Some of the initial dominance and additive-by-additive variance was converted to additive genetic variance during the selection period, which in turn contributed to the selection response. ZUSAMMENFASSUNG: Auswirkungen von Dominanz and Epistasie auf den genetischen Aufbau von simulierten Populationen unter Selektion: Eine Modellentwicklung Ein 2-Locus-Genmodell wurde zur Simulation verschiedener Ausprägungen von additiven, Dominanz und additiv mal additiv genetischen Effekten verwendet. Das Merkmal under phänotypischer Selektion wurde von 30 diallelen Locuspaaren auf verschiedenen Chromosomen kontrolliert. Die Anfangsgenfrequenz wurde für alle Loci mit 0.5 angenommen und die Rekombinationsrate betrug 0.20 zwischen benachbarten Loci. Die Heritabilität im weiteren Sinn wurde zwischen 0.03, 0.30 und 0.60 variiert. Nach dem Aufbau einer Population durch Zufallspaarung von 200 männlichen und 400 weiblichen Individuen wurden die phänotypisch besten Individuen pro Jahr unter Konstanthaltung der Populationsgröße über einen Zeitraum von 200 Jahren (ca. 35 überlappende Generationen) selektiert. Die Ergebnisse der Simulationen zeigten extreme Unterschiede zwischen den acht Modellen mit der gleichen Anfangsheritabilität aber verschiedenen Anteilen von additiven, Dominanz und additiv mal additiven Varianzkomponenten. Ein Modell mit zu Beginn gleich hoher additiver, Dominanz und additiv mal additiver Varianz und negativem Dominanz- und positivem additiv mal additiven Effekt führte bei allen simulierten Heritabilitäten langfristig zum höchsten Selektionserfolg. Kurzfristig zeigte das additive Modell den höchsten Selektionsfortschritt. Ein Teil der Anfangs-Dominanz- und -Additiv mal additiv-Varianz wurde während der Selektionsperiode in additive Varianz umgewandelt, die wiederum zum Selektionserfolg beitrug.