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OBJECTIVE: There is a need for refined methods to detect and quantify brain injuries that may be undetectable by magnetic resonance imaging and neurologic examination. This review evaluates the potential efficacy of circulating brain injury biomarkers for predicting outcomes following elective neurosurgical procedures. METHODS: A comprehensive search was conducted using the Cochrane, PubMed, and Scopus databases. RESULTS: Analysis of 23 relevant studies revealed that specific biomarkers, including glial fibrillary acidic protein, neurofilament light chain, neuron-specific enolase, S100B, and tau, are significantly associated with the extent of brain injury and could potentially predict postsurgical outcomes. The evaluated studies described intracranial tumor surgeries and miscellaneous neurosurgical interventions and demonstrated the complex relationship between biomarker levels and patient outcomes. CONCLUSIONS: Circulating brain injury biomarkers show promise for providing objective insights into the extent of perioperative brain injury and improving prognostication of postsurgical outcomes. However, the heterogeneity in study designs and outcomes along with the lack of standardized biomarker thresholds underscore the need for further research.
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OBJECTIVE: To investigate long-term explantation risks and causes for the explantation of neuromodulation devices for the treatment of chronic pain from different manufacturers. METHODS: This retrospective analysis included patients implanted with a system for spinal cord stimulation (SCS) or dorsal root ganglion (DRG) stimulation at Sahlgrenska University Hospital between January 2012 and December 2022. Patient characteristics, explantation rates and causes for explantation were obtained by reviewing medical records. RESULTS: In total, 400 patients were included in the study. Including all manufacturers, the cumulative explantation risk for any reason was 17%, 23% and 38% at 3, 5 and 10 years, respectively. Explantation risk due to diminished pain relief at the same intervals was 10%, 14% and 23%. A subgroup comparison of 5-year explantation risk using Kaplan-Meier analysis did not show a statistically significant difference between the manufacturers. In multivariable Cox regression analyses, there was no difference in explantation risk for any reason, but for explantation due to diminished pain relief, a higher risk was noted for Medtronic (preferably older types of SCS devices) and DRG stimulation. No other predictive factor for explantation was found. CONCLUSIONS: Although SCS and DRG stimulation are well-established and safe treatments for chronic pain, the long-term explantation risk remains high. The difference between manufacturers highlights the importance of technological evolution for improving therapy outcomes. Increased stringency in patient selection and follow-up strategies, as well as further development of device hardware and software technology for increased longevity, could possibly reduce long-term explantation risks.