High temperature can improve the performance of invasive plants by facilitating root growth.

PREMISE: The ever-increasing temperatures of the Anthropocene may facilitate plant invasions. To date, studies of temperature effects on alien plants have mainly focused on aboveground plant traits but ignored belowground traits, which may confound predictions of plant invasion risks. METHODS: The temperature effects on the root growth dynamics of two alien shrubs, invasive Mimosa sepiaria and naturalized Corchorus capsulari, were studied using a 3D, transparent growth system under five temperature treatments (day/night: 18°C/13°C to 34°C/29°C) that cover the present and future warming temperature scenarios in China. We measured root depth and width growth in response to temperature treatments over 84 days. We also investigated intra- and interspecific competition of paired plants of the two species grown together at the five temperatures. RESULTS: Shoot growth of M. sepiaria and C. capsularis was optimal at the mid-range temperature. Root growth, however, was faster at the highest temperature (34°C/29°C) for M. sepiaria, but decreased for C. capsularis as temperatures increased. Root depth growth was more sensitive than root width for both species during neighbor competition. Compared to C. capsularis, M. sepiaria had relatively greater advantage during intra- and interspecific competition with increasing temperature, possibly because of its better root growth at high temperatures. CONCLUSIONS: These results suggest that temperature increases can improve the performance of some alien plants by facilitating width and depth growth of their roots. This enhancement requires serious attention when managing and predicting invasion risk.

Flying squirrels use a mortise-tenon structure to fix nuts on understory twigs.

Squirrels of temperate zones commonly store nuts or seeds under leaf litter, in hollow logs, or even in holes in the ground; however, in the humid rainforests of Jianfengling in Hainan, South China, we show that some flying squirrels cache elliptical or oblate nuts by hanging them securely in vegetation. These small flying squirrels were identified as Hylopetes phayrei electilis (G. M. Allen, 1925) and Hylopetes alboniger (Hodgson, 1870), in video clips captured of their behavior around focal nuts. Squirrels chewed grooves encircling ellipsoid nuts or distributed on the bottoms of oblate nuts, and then used these grooves to fix nuts tightly between small twigs 0.1-0.6 cm in diameter that were connected at angles of 25-40°. The grooves carved on the nuts (concave structure) connected with Y-shaped twigs (convex structure) and thus firmly affixed the nuts to the plant in a way similar to a mortise-tenon joint used in architecture and carpentry. Cache sites were on small plants located 10-25 m away from the closest potentially nut-producing tree, a behavior that likely reduces the discovery and consumption of the nuts by other animals. The adaptive squirrel behavior that shapes and fits nuts between twigs seems to be directed at providing more secure storage that increases food supply during dry periods in a humid tropical rainforest. In addition to providing such benefits for the squirrels, we suggest that this behavior also impacts the distribution of tree species in the forest.

The rainy forests of South China are home to Cyclobalanopsis trees whose smooth, elliptical nuts are favoured by many animal species. While doing fieldwork in the Jianfengling nature reserve in the southern province of Hainan, China, researchers came across an unusual sight: many of these nuts had been wedged into the Y-shaped forks between diverging twigs. A closer inspection revealed that a carefully crafted groove on the surface of the nuts helped them to stay wedged and secured between the branches. Which creature was responsible for such a feat? To investigate, Xu et al. set up motion-triggered, infra-red cameras near some of the hoarding sites. They discovered that the culprits were Hylopetes phayrei electilis and Hylopetes alboniger, two small species of flying squirrel that tend to store Cyclobalanopsis nuts to prepare for the dry, cool season. The footage showed that the squirrels first chewed the nuts before inserting them tightly between the branches. In fact, this process appeared to require much care ­ and, potentially, cognitive involvement ­ with the squirrels testing and adjusting their grooves many times until a perfect fit was achieved. Caching sites were usually found 10 to 25 meters away from the nearest Cyclobalanopsis tree, which probably helps to protect the hoards from other animals on the hunt for nuts. Squirrels from temperate regions typically prepare for winter by hiding food in the ground, between logs or inside hollow trees; in humid, tropical forests, however, such caching sites may promote mould, decomposition or germination. In these conditions, securely hanging nuts between branches may prove to be a more suitable strategy. By choosing caching sites that are away from the mother tree, squirrels may also inadvertently help Cyclobalanopsis to expand their range, with forgotten nuts becoming dislodged and sprouting in new locations across the reserve. Overall, these findings shed new light on animal adaptation and cognition, as well as on the forces that help to shape forest ecology.

A mechanistic model for nitrogen-limited plant growth.

BACKGROUND AND AIMS: Nitrogen is often regarded as a limiting factor to plant growth in various ecosystems. Understanding how nitrogen drives plant growth has numerous theoretical and practical applications in agriculture and ecology. In 2004, Göran I. Ågren proposed a mechanistic model of plant growth from a biochemical perspective. However, neglecting respiration and assuming stable and balanced growth made the model unrealistic for plants growing in natural conditions. The aim of the present paper is to extend Ågren's model to overcome these limitations. METHODS: We improved Ågren's model by incorporating the respiratory process and replacing the stable and balanced growth assumption with a three-parameter power function to describe the relationship between nitrogen concentration (Nc) and biomass. The new model was evaluated based on published data from three studies on corn (Zea mays) growth. KEY RESULTS: Remarkably, the mechanistic growth model derived in this study is mathematically equivalent to the classical Richards model, which is the most widely used empirical growth model. The model agrees well with empirical plant growth data. CONCLUSIONS: Our model provides a mechanistic interpretation of how nitrogen drives plant growth. It is very robust in predicting growth curves and the relationship between Nc and relative growth rate.

Sexual competition and kin recognition co-shape the traits of neighboring dioecious Diospyros morrisiana seedlings.

Plants respond differently to the identity of their neighbors, such as their sex and kinship, showing plasticity in their traits. However, how the functional traits of dioecious trees are shaped by the recognition of neighbors with different sex and kinship remains unknown. In this study, we set up an experiment with different kin/nonkin and inter/intrasexual combinations for a dioecious tree species, Diospyros morrisiana. The results showed that plants grew better with nonkin and intrasexual neighbors than with kin and intersexual neighbors. Kin combinations had significantly shorter root length in the resource-overlapping zone than nonkin combinations, suggesting that kin tended to reduce competition by adjusting their root distribution, especially among female siblings. Our study suggested that the seedling growth of D. morrisiana was affected by both the relatedness and sexual identity of neighboring plants. Further analysis by gas chromatography-mass spectrometry showed that the root exudate composition of female seedlings differed from that of male seedlings. Root exudates may play important roles in sex competition in dioecious plants. This study indicates that sex-specific competition and kin recognition interact and co-shape the traits of D. morrisiana seedlings, while intrasexual and nonkin neighbors facilitate the growth of seedlings. Our study implies that kin- and sex-related interactions depend on different mechanisms, kin selection, and niche partitioning, respectively. These results are critical for understanding how species coexist and how traits are shaped in nature.

Arbuscular mycorrhizal trees influence the latitudinal beta-diversity gradient of tree communities in forests worldwide.

Arbuscular mycorrhizal (AM) and ectomycorrhizal (EcM) associations are critical for host-tree performance. However, how mycorrhizal associations correlate with the latitudinal tree beta-diversity remains untested. Using a global dataset of 45 forest plots representing 2,804,270 trees across 3840 species, we test how AM and EcM trees contribute to total beta-diversity and its components (turnover and nestedness) of all trees. We find AM rather than EcM trees predominantly contribute to decreasing total beta-diversity and turnover and increasing nestedness with increasing latitude, probably because wide distributions of EcM trees do not generate strong compositional differences among localities. Environmental variables, especially temperature and precipitation, are strongly correlated with beta-diversity patterns for both AM trees and all trees rather than EcM trees. Results support our hypotheses that latitudinal beta-diversity patterns and environmental effects on these patterns are highly dependent on mycorrhizal types. Our findings highlight the importance of AM-dominated forests for conserving global forest biodiversity.

Species Identity and Initial Size Rather Than Neighborhood Interactions Influence Survival in a Response-Surface Examination of Competition.

To measure intraspecific and interspecific interaction coefficients among tree species is the key to explore the underlying mechanisms for species coexistence and biodiversity maintenance in forests. Through the response surface experimental design, we established a long-term field experiment by planting 27,300 seedlings of four tree species (Erythrophleum fordii, Pinus massoniana, Castanopsis fissa, and Castanopsis carlesii) in 504 plots in different species combinations (six pairwise combinations of four species), abundance proportions (five abundance proportions of two species, i.e. A: B = 1:0, 3:1, 1:1, 1:3, 0:1), and stand densities (25, 36, 64, and 100 seedlings per plot). In this initial report, we aimed to quantify the relative importance of biotic and abiotic factors on seedling survival at the early stage of growth, which is a critical period for seedling establishment. We found that plot-level seedling survival rate was determined by species combination and their abundance proportion rather than stand density. At the individual level, individual survival probability was mainly explained by species identity, initial seedling size, and soil conditions rather than neighborhood competition. Our study highlights that the seedling intrinsic properties may be the key factors in determining seedling survival rate, while neighborhood effects were not yet prominent at the seedling life stage.

Soil nitrogen concentration mediates the relationship between leguminous trees and neighbor diversity in tropical forests.

Legumes provide an essential service to ecosystems by capturing nitrogen from the atmosphere and delivering it to the soil, where it may then be available to other plants. However, this facilitation by legumes has not been widely studied in global tropical forests. Demographic data from 11 large forest plots (16-60 ha) ranging from 5.25° S to 29.25° N latitude show that within forests, leguminous trees have a larger effect on neighbor diversity than non-legumes. Where soil nitrogen is high, most legume species have higher neighbor diversity than non-legumes. Where soil nitrogen is low, most legumes have lower neighbor diversity than non-legumes. No facilitation effect on neighbor basal area was observed in either high or low soil N conditions. The legume-soil nitrogen positive feedback that promotes tree diversity has both theoretical implications for understanding species coexistence in diverse forests, and practical implications for the utilization of legumes in forest restoration.

High Temperature can Change Root System Architecture and Intensify Root Interactions of Plant Seedlings.

Climate change could alter plant aboveground and belowground resource allocation. Compared with shoots, we know much less about how roots, especially root system architecture (RSA) and their interactions, may respond to temperature changes. Such responses could have great influence on species'acquisition of resources and their competition with neighbors. We used a gel-based transparent growth system to in situ observe the responses of RSA and root interactions of three common subtropical plant species seedlings in Asia differing in growth forms (herb, shrub, and tree) under a wide growth temperature range of 18-34°C, including low and supra-optimal temperatures. Results showed that the RSA, especially root depth and root width, of the three species varied significantly in response to increased temperature although the response of their aboveground shoot traits was very similar. Increased temperature was also observed to have little impact on shoot/root resource allocation pattern. The variations in RSA responses among species could lead to both the intensity and direction change of root interactions. Under high temperature, negative root interactions could be intensified and species with larger root size and fast early root expansion had competitive advantages. In summary, our findings indicate that greater root resilience play a key role in plant adapting to high temperature. The varied intensity and direction of root interactions suggest changed temperatures could alter plant competition. Seedlings with larger root size and fast early root expansion may better adapt to warmer climates.

The association between particulate matter 2.5 exposure and children with autism spectrum disorder.

OBJECTIVE: Particulate matter (PM) as an environmental pollutant is suspected to be associated with autism spectrum disorder (ASD). The aim of this study was to assess whether exposures to PM2.5 during the first three years of life in relation to the risk and degree of the severity of ASD. METHODS: A total of two hundred and ninety-seven 3-6 years old Chinese children (99 confirmed autism cases and 198 their age-gender matched control subjects) were included. Children's exposures to PM2.5 (particulate matter with aerodynamic diameter <2.5 µm) during the first three years after birth were estimated. Logistic regression analysis was used to examine the PM2.5-ASD association. RESULTS: The mean levels of PM2.5 exposures in ASD and typical developmental children during the first three years of life were 89.8[standard deviations (SD): 6.1] µg/m3 and 87.3(6.6) µg/m3, respectively (p = 0.002). A statistically significant positive correlation was found between the serum levels of PM2.5 and the Childhood Autism Rating Scale (CARS) score indicating severity of autism (r = 0.259; p = 0.010). Based on the receiver operating characteristic (ROC) curve, the optimal cutoff value of PM2.5 levels as an indicator for auxiliary diagnosis of ASD was projected to be 89.5ug/m3, which yielded a sensitivity of 65.4% and a specificity of 63.2%, with the area under the curve at 0.61 (95% confidence intervals [CIs], 0.54-0.68; P < 0.001). Multivariate analysis models were used to assess ASD risk according to PM2.5 quartiles (the lowest quartile [Q1] as the reference), with the adjusted odds ratios (ORs) (95% CIs) were recorded. As shown in the Table 2, the 3rd and 4th quartile of PM2.5 were compared against the Q1, and the risks were increased by 103% (OR = 2.03; 95%CI: 1.13-5.54; p = 0.015) and 311% (4.15; 2.04-9.45; p = 0.002), respectively. CONCLUSIONS: To conclude, the evidence from this study allowed us to conclude that there was an association between PM2.5 exposure and ASD risk and severity.

Direct and indirect effects of climate on richness drive the latitudinal diversity gradient in forest trees.

Climate is widely recognised as an important determinant of the latitudinal diversity gradient. However, most existing studies make no distinction between direct and indirect effects of climate, which substantially hinders our understanding of how climate constrains biodiversity globally. Using data from 35 large forest plots, we test hypothesised relationships amongst climate, topography, forest structural attributes (stem abundance, tree size variation and stand basal area) and tree species richness to better understand drivers of latitudinal tree diversity patterns. Climate influences tree richness both directly, with more species in warm, moist, aseasonal climates and indirectly, with more species at higher stem abundance. These results imply direct limitation of species diversity by climatic stress and more rapid (co-)evolution and narrower niche partitioning in warm climates. They also support the idea that increased numbers of individuals associated with high primary productivity are partitioned to support a greater number of species.

Comparing shade tolerance measures of woody forest species.

Shade tolerance, the minimum light requirement for plant survival, is a key trait for understanding community assembly and forest dynamics. However, it is poorly defined for tree species to date. Current methods of measuring shade tolerance vary considerably in their performance. For instance, some measures of shade tolerance are unreliable except under some specific conditions. Therefore, it is necessary to compare the performance of these methods to provide guidance of choosing appropriate shade tolerance measures in future studies. We collected a large dataset of light traits and other life history traits for 137 understory wood species in a subtropical forest and tested the performance of five commonly used shade-tolerance indices. Results showed that all the shade-tolerance measures, except the low-light abundance index, performed poorly in distinguishing and ranking shade tolerance of the tested species. The shade tolerance quantified by the low-light abundance was consistent with empirical classification of shade-tolerance/intolerance groups and successional seral stages of species. Comparison of the shade tolerance between trees of different diameter at breast height (DBH) or height classes further confirmed the reliability of low-light abundance. We conclude that low-light abundance is the most objective and practical of the five most commonly-used methods for measuring and ranking shade tolerance of understory wood species in our study forest, and likely in other forests as well. The simplicity of the method should greatly facilitate the assessment of light niche differentiation between species and thus contribute to understanding coexistence of tree species in forests.

The effect of soil-borne pathogens depends on the abundance of host tree species.

The overarching issue for understanding biodiversity maintenance is how fitness advantages accrue to a species as it becomes rare, as this is the defining feature of stable coexistence mechanisms. Without these fitness advantages, average fitness differences between species will lead to exclusion. However, empirical evidence is lacking, especially for forests, due to the difficulty of manipulating density on a large-enough scale. Here we took advantage of naturally occurring contrasts in abundance between sites of a subtropical tree species, Ormosia glaberrima, to demonstrate how low-density fitness advantages accrue by the Janzen-Connell mechanism. The results showed that soil pathogens suppressed seedling recruitment of O. glaberrima when it is abundant but had little effect on the seedlings when it is at low density due to the lack of pathogens. The difference in seedling survival between abundant and low-density sites demonstrates strong dependence of pathogenic effect on the abundance of host species.

Genotypic recognition and spatial responses by rice roots.

Root system growth and development is highly plastic and is influenced by the surrounding environment. Roots frequently grow in heterogeneous environments that include interactions from neighboring plants and physical impediments in the rhizosphere. To investigate how planting density and physical objects affect root system growth, we grew rice in a transparent gel system in close proximity with another plant or a physical object. Root systems were imaged and reconstructed in three dimensions. Root-root interaction strength was calculated using quantitative metrics that characterize the extent to which the reconstructed root systems overlap each other. Surprisingly, we found the overlap of root systems of the same genotype was significantly higher than that of root systems of different genotypes. Root systems of the same genotype tended to grow toward each other but those of different genotypes appeared to avoid each other. Shoot separation experiments excluded the possibility of aerial interactions, suggesting root communication. Staggered plantings indicated that interactions likely occur at root tips in close proximity. Recognition of obstacles also occurred through root tips, but through physical contact in a size-dependent manner. These results indicate that root systems use two different forms of communication to recognize objects and alter root architecture: root-root recognition, possibly mediated through root exudates, and root-object recognition mediated by physical contact at the root tips. This finding suggests that root tips act as local sensors that integrate rhizosphere information into global root architectural changes.

GiA Roots: software for the high throughput analysis of plant root system architecture.

BACKGROUND: Characterizing root system architecture (RSA) is essential to understanding the development and function of vascular plants. Identifying RSA-associated genes also represents an underexplored opportunity for crop improvement. Software tools are needed to accelerate the pace at which quantitative traits of RSA are estimated from images of root networks. RESULTS: We have developed GiA Roots (General Image Analysis of Roots), a semi-automated software tool designed specifically for the high-throughput analysis of root system images. GiA Roots includes user-assisted algorithms to distinguish root from background and a fully automated pipeline that extracts dozens of root system phenotypes. Quantitative information on each phenotype, along with intermediate steps for full reproducibility, is returned to the end-user for downstream analysis. GiA Roots has a GUI front end and a command-line interface for interweaving the software into large-scale workflows. GiA Roots can also be extended to estimate novel phenotypes specified by the end-user. CONCLUSIONS: We demonstrate the use of GiA Roots on a set of 2393 images of rice roots representing 12 genotypes from the species Oryza sativa. We validate trait measurements against prior analyses of this image set that demonstrated that RSA traits are likely heritable and associated with genotypic differences. Moreover, we demonstrate that GiA Roots is extensible and an end-user can add functionality so that GiA Roots can estimate novel RSA traits. In summary, we show that the software can function as an efficient tool as part of a workflow to move from large numbers of root images to downstream analysis.

Crop root behavior coordinates phosphorus status and neighbors: from field studies to three-dimensional in situ reconstruction of root system architecture.

Root is a primary organ to respond to environmental stimuli and percept signals from neighboring plants. In this study, root responses in maize (Zea mays)/soybean (Glycine max) intercropping systems recognized soil phosphorus (P) status and neighboring plants in the field. Compared to self culture, the maize variety GZ1 intercropping with soybean HX3 grew much better on low P, but not in another maize variety, NE1. This genotypic response decreased with increasing distance between plants, suggesting that root interactions were important. We further conducted a detailed and quantitative study of root behavior in situ using a gel system to reconstruct the three-dimensional root architecture. The results showed that plant roots could integrate information on P status and root behavior of neighboring plants. When intercropped with its kin, maize or soybean roots grew close to each other. However, when maize GZ1 was grown with soybean HX3, the roots on each plant tended to avoid each other and became shallower on stratified P supply, but not found with maize NE1. Furthermore, root behavior in gel was highly correlated to shoot biomass and P content for field-grown plants grown in close proximity. This study provides new insights into the dynamics and complexity of root behavior and kin recognition among crop species in response to nutrient status and neighboring plants. These findings also indicate that root behavior not only depends on neighbor recognition but also on a coordinated response to soil P status, which could be the underlying cause for the different growth responses in the field.

[Clinical study on naoxintong capsule for stroke recovery of Qi-deficiency and blood-stasis syndrome].

OBJECTIVE: To study the efficacy and safety of Naoxintong capsule treatment of stroke recovery with Qi-deficiency and blood-stasis syndrome (cerebral infarction), and to compared the non-inferiority analysis with the positive drug Tongxinluo capsule. METHOD: Taking Tongxinluo capsules as control, randomized, double-blind, controlled, multi-center clinical experiments were studied. The evaluating indexes included the decrease of integral value of stroke patients, changes in traditional Chinese medicine, the improvement of the patient viability status (disability level), Chinese stroke scale (CSS), activities of daily living (DAL) scale and barthel index (BI ) points. RESULT: The total effect of the two groups, Chinese and other symptoms, showed no significant statistical significance. CONCLUSION: Naoxintong capsule stroke recovery, with Qi-deficiency and blood-stasis syndrome (cerebral infarction) has a therapeutic effect, and more secure.

3D reconstruction and dynamic modeling of root architecture in situ and its application to crop phosphorus research.

Root architecture plays important roles in plant water and nutrient acquisition. However, accurate modeling of the root system that provides a realistic representation of roots in the soil is limited by a lack of appropriate tools for the non-destructive and precise measurement of the root system architecture in situ. Here we describe a root growth system in which the roots grow in a solid gel matrix that was used to reconstruct 3D root architecture in situ and dynamically simulate its changes under various nutrient conditions with a high degree of precision. A 3D laser scanner combined with a transparent gel-based growth system was used to capture 3D images of roots. The root system skeleton was extracted using a skeleton extraction method based on the Hough transformation, and mesh modeling using Ball-B spline was employed. We successfully used this system to reconstruct rice and soybean root architectures and determine their changes under various phosphorus (P) supply conditions. Our results showed that the 3D root architecture parameters that were dynamically calculated based on the skeletonization and simulation of root systems were significantly correlated with the biomass and P content of rice and soybean based on both the simulation system and previous reports. Therefore, this approach provides a novel technique for the study of crop root growth and its adaptive changes to various environmental conditions.

[Exploration on essence of spleen-kidney deficiency in middle-aged patients].

OBJECTIVE: To explore the essence of Spleen-Kidney Deficiency in middle-aged patients. METHODS: Investigation was carried out in 773 cases of 50-69 years old to assay 34 parameters in them, including blood lipid, oxidation and anti-oxidation related substance, sex hormone, liver and renal function, immune function, blood routine, blood pressure and lung vital capacity, etc. RESULTS: Spleen Deficiency Syndrome is closely related with lipid metabolism disorder; Kidney-Qi Deficiency Syndrome is closely related with hypoimmune function; Kidney-Yin Deficiency Syndrome is closely related with lipid metabolism disorder and hypertension, and Kidney Yang Deficiency is closely related with weakness of anti-oxidation capacity, hypoimmunity, the internal environment disorder of sex hormone and aging, manifested as multiple functions abating. CONCLUSION: Spleen Deficiency, Kidney-Qi Deficiency and Kidney Yang Deficiency are different layers of a gradually developed and aggravated pathological process, but Kidney-Yin Deficiency could not be listed into this layer.