Cultural assimilation of adult Syrian refugees in Lebanon: Effect modification by religiosity and sex on the relation between cultural adversities and common mental health disorders.

OBJECTIVE: In this study, we aimed to explore the prevalence and determinants of common mental health disorders (CMHDs, posttraumatic stress disorder [PTSD], depression, and anxiety) in Syrian refugees in Lebanon. Specifically, we examined how the associations between cultural adversities (discrimination, unemployment, and separation from family) and CMHDs are modified by levels of religiosity and sex. METHOD: Between March and June 2017, a cross-sectional study was conducted targeting adult Arab Syrian refugees residing in Beirut and Southern Lebanon. Eligibility criteria comprised being a United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees-registered Syrian refugee residing in Lebanon, 18 years and older, and having no history of mental disorder or physical disability. A total of 191 refugees agreed to participate and complete a battery of six questionnaires. Exposures were measured using a sociodemographic questionnaire, the Postmigration Living Difficulties Checklist, the Harvard Trauma Questionnaire, and the Belief into Action Scale, while outcomes were measured using the Posttraumatic Stress Disorder Checklist for DSM-5 and the Depression and Anxiety Scale-21 Items. RESULTS: Half (50.3%) of our sample had high PTSD risk, 73.8% had high depression risk, and 73.8% had high anxiety risk. Stratified analysis revealed religiosity and sex to be effect modifiers of the associations between cultural adversities and CMHDs. Specifically, cultural adversities were only significantly associated with CMHDs in the low religiosity stratum and males. Only unemployment was a significant risk factor for PTSD in both males (OR = 4.53, 95% CI [1.44, 14.27]) and females (OR = 2.77, 95% CI [1.14, 6.74]). CONCLUSIONS: Religiosity and sex are effect modifiers of the associations between cultural adversities and CMHDs. Religious and spiritual interventions in mental health care should be adopted in refugee settings. Moreover, there is an urgent need for capacity-building initiatives addressing social determinants of mental health among Syrian refugees in Lebanon. (PsycInfo Database Record (c) 2024 APA, all rights reserved).

Unraveling the Complexity of Multicentric Gliomas: Insights Into Chronicity and Genetic Aberrations.

Gliomas are among the most common primary tumors of the brain. Discrimination among tumors of more than one focus has segregated the latter into two groups: multifocal gliomas and multicentric gliomas (MCGs). In this case series, outcomes among three patients are described and discussed in light of the findings present in the literature. Ideally, it is crucial to consider genetic testing for categorizing each tumor. This can help determine the original genetic mutations of MCGs and allow to establish necessary screening testing for early detection. We present the cases of three patients diagnosed with cranial gliomas. The first case showed two synchronous gliomas at different loci in the right hemisphere. The second patient showed synchronous lesions on cranial magnetic resonance imaging in each hemisphere. The third case was of a patient with metachronous lesions appearing at different times with similar radiological findings at different loci of the same hemisphere. Discrimination among multifocal and multicentric gliomas requires genetic workup because radiological and temporal findings may fail to allow adequate discrimination.

Middle meningeal artery embolisation: The review of a new treatment for chronic subdural hematomas.

Background: This is a literature review aiming to provide an update about the recent findings related to the efficacy of middle meningeal artery embolization (MMAE) in the treatment of chronic subdural hematomas (cSDHs), comparison with conventional therapy and deduction of the current recommendations and indications. Methods: The literature is reviewed using a search through the PubMed index using keywords. Studies are then screened, skimmed, and thoroughly read. 32 studies fulfilled the inclusion criteria and are included in the study. Results: Five indications for the application of MMA embolization (MMAE) are deducted from the literature. The usage as a preventive measure after surgical treatment of symptomatic cSDHs in patients with a high risk of recurrence and the usage as a standalone procedure has been the most common reasons for indication of this procedure. Rates of failures for the aforementioned indications have been 6.8% and 3.8%, respectively. Conclusion: The safety of MMAE as a procedure is regarded as a general theme in the literature and can be considered for future applications. Usage of this procedure in clinical trials with more patient segregation and timeframe assessment relative to surgical intervention are recommendations of this literature review.

Cognitive functioning in women with breast cancer: psychometric properties of the Arabic version of the Functional Assessment of Cancer Therapy-Cognitive Function Tool.

BACKGROUND: The Functional Assessment of Cancer Therapy-Cognitive Function (FACT-Cog) evaluates perceived cognitive functioning and their impact on quality of life. This study was designed to evaluate the factors associated with cognitive functioning in a sample of women with breast cancer (BC) in Lebanon. We also sought to explore the psychometric properties of the FACT-Cog Arabic version. METHODS: A cross-sectional study was carried out between March and August 2020 among women with BC. Socio-demographic and clinical characteristics were collected. In addition, patients were asked to complete the FACT-Cog Arabic version as well as the European Organization for Research and Treatment of Cancer Quality of Life Core Questionnaire 30, the Patient Health Questionnaire (PHQ-9), and the Generalized Anxiety Disorder (GAD-7). The internal consistency of the FACT-Cog tool was evaluated using Cronbach's alpha. Content, convergent, and known group validity of the FACT-Cog Arabic version were also evaluated. All statistical analyses were performed using SPSS version 23.0. RESULTS: A sample of 134 women with BC was collected. Internal consistencies of the FACT-cog total scale and its subscales were high (Cronbach's α between 0.83 and 0.95). The convergent validity of the FACT-Cog Arabic version was supported by the positive correlation with the EORTC-cognitive functioning subscale. Moreover, negative correlations were found between FACT-Cog scale and fatigue, pain, anxiety, as well as depression. Known-group validity was supported by the statistically significant mean differences of the FACT-Cog total scale between patients in early (I &II) and late (III & IV) BC stages. Unmarried BC patients as well as those having higher depressive symptoms and a lower quality of life were found to be at higher risk of cognitive impairment. CONCLUSION: The FACT-Cog Lebanese Arabic version is a valid and reliable tool for assessing perceived cognitive functioning in BC women. Higher level of depression and impaired quality of life were associated with a decline in cognitive functioning.

Neurological manifestations of COVID-19: a systematic review and detailed comprehension.

The current pandemic caused by severe acute respiratory syndrome corona virus 2 (SARS-CoV-2) is accompanied with a rapid increase of reports and papers detailing its neurological effects and symptoms. The virus infection causes respiratory illness named by the world health organization as corona virus 19 (COVID-19).This systematic review aims to study and summarize the different neurological manifestations of this virus. All articles published and indexed via Pubmed, Medline and Google Scholar databases between January 1st 2020 and February 28th 2021 that reported neurological symptoms of SARS-CoV-2 are reviewed following the Preferred Reporting Items for Systemic review and Meta-Analysis (PRISMA) guidelines.We included data from 113 articles: eight prospective studies, 25 retrospective studies and the rest were case reports/series. COVID-19 can present with central nervous system manifestations, such as headache, encephalitis and encephalopathy, peripheral nervous system manifestations, such as anosmia, ageusia and Guillian Barre syndrome, and skeletal muscle manifestations, such as myalgia and myasthenia gravis. Our systematic review showed that COVID-19 can be manifested by a wide spectrum of neurological symptoms reported either in the early stage or within the course of the disease. However, a detailed comprehension of these manifestations is required and more studies are needed in order to improve our scientific knowledge and to develop preventive and therapeutic measures to control this pandemic.

Computed tomography findings as early predictors of long-term language impairment in patients with traumatic brain injury.

This study aims to assess the relationship between computed tomography (CT) findings, during the acute phase of hospitalization, and long-term language impairment in people with traumatic brain injury (TBI). Another aim was to assess the receptive and expressive abilities of subjects with TBI based on the location of the injury. This is a retrospective observational study including 49 participants with TBI due to war injuries. The Arabic Diagnostic Aphasia Battery (A-DAB-1) was administered to the participants and the Helsinki CT score was computed to quantify brain damage. The results showed that the Helsinki CT score was negatively correlated with the total score of the A-DAB-1 (r = -0.544, p-value < 0.0001). Simple linear regression supported such findings and reflected an inversely proportional relationship between both variables (p-value < 0.0001). When compared with subjects having right hemisphere damage, subjects with left hemisphere and bilateral brain damage performed more poorly on language tasks respectively as follows: A-DAB-1 overall score (92.08-66.08-70.28, p-value = 0.021), Content of descriptive speech (9.57-6.69-7.22, p-value = 0.034), Verbal fluency (6.57-3.54-3.89, p-value = 0.002), Auditory comprehension (9.71-7.54-7.78, p-value = 0.039), Complex auditory commands (9.71-7.65-7.56, p-value = 0.043), Repetition (9.75-7.08-7.61, p-value = 0.036), Naming (9.93-7.15-8.11, p-value = 0.046). Following TBI, CT findings on admission can significantly predict long-term language abilities, with left side lesions inducing poorer outcomes.

Predictors of neuropathic pain and related functional disability in sciatica patients: a cross-sectional study.

PURPOSE: The aim of the present paper was to assess neuropathic pain and its predictors among patients with sciatica. In addition, we sought to investigate the predictors of functional disability in sciatica patients with neuropathic pain. METHODS: A cross-sectional study was carried out on a sample of 100 sciatica patients aged 18 years and older with a radiating pain from the lower back down to the leg below the knee. Information about socio-demographic characteristics, duration of symptoms, being treated or not, type of treatment, side of sciatica, presence of back pain, leg pain occurrence, leg pain intensity, functional disability and pain catastrophizing were collected. RESULTS: Of the total patients, 57% had neuropathic pain. Multivariable analysis showed that leg pain intensity was higher in the neuropathic pain group as compared to the non-neuropathic pain group. Also, patients with left sciatica were less likely to have neuropathic pain than patients with right sciatica. Patients with neuropathic pain having high levels of pain catastrophizing and being on bed rest for at least one week were at a higher risk of developing functional disability as compared to their counterparts. CONCLUSION: Low levels of pain catastrophizing and less bed rest should be considered in interventions aimed at improving the functional ability for sciatica patients with neuropathic pain.

Lebanese University Students and COVID-19: A Survey on their Related-Knowledge, Practice, and Behaviors.

Introduction: Young adults are at the epicenter for preventing the progression of COVID-19 pandemic and must be targeted for education to impede any potential transmission of the disease. This study aimed to assess the knowledge, practice and behaviors of Lebanese university students regarding COVID-19. Methods: A cross-sectional study was carried out among university students at the Lebanese University between March 30, 2020, and April 4, 2020. Information on socio-demographic data, knowledge, practice, and additional information concerning COVID-19 were collected. Results: Our survey showed that the majority of the students had good knowledge 90.8%, and more than two third of the respondents 78.6% reported good practice regarding COVID-19. Graduate students were more knowledgeable compared to undergraduate students (unstandardized beta 0.349 with a 95% confidence interval (CI) of 0.165 to 0.533; p-value < 0.0001). Moreover, male students had a negative impact on good practice compared to females (unstandardized beta -0.280 with a 95% confidence interval (CI) of -0.402 to -0.159; p-value < 0.0001). Nearly half of the students (55.2%) reported that their food intake has increased, and 82.5% of the students didn't practice sport during the quarantine. The most common information source of the students was the television (63.3%) followed by social media (53.9%). Conclusions: This study offers useful insights into the knowledge and practices of Lebanese university students towards COVID-19. Our findings support the importance to deliver health education campaign by the ministry of public health through television and social media to improve the knowledge on disease transmission and preventive measures.

Fear and death anxiety in the shadow of COVID-19 among the Lebanese population: A cross-sectional study.

BACKGROUND: The COVID-19 pandemic was one of the most devastating health crises the world has seen. One of its mental health consequences includes fear of being infected, which could lead to anxiety. This study aimed to assess the fear related to the COVID-19 pandemic and its associated factors among the adult population in Lebanon. METHODS: A cross-sectional study was conducted in Lebanon between February 26th and April 29th, 2021. Data was collected through an online survey among adults aged 18 years and older. Information on sociodemographic and clinical characteristics of the participants, fear and death anxiety related to the COVID-19 pandemic, depression, and anxiety were collected. Multivariable linear regression analyses were carried out to identify the predictors of fear related to the COVID-19 pandemic. RESULTS: A total of 1840 participants were included in the analysis of which 62.9% were females and 62.2% were single. The age of the participants ranged from 18 to 70 years with a mean of 26.6 ±8.8 years. Of the total participants, 41.9% felt uncomfortable thinking about the novel Coronavirus and 35.4% of candidates became nervous/anxious when watching the news about COVID-19 on social media. About one-third of the participants (33.7%) were afraid of COVID-19 and 23.8% were afraid of losing their life because of the disease. Concerning somatic symptoms of fear, 7.9% reported increased heart races or palpitations whenever they thought about getting infected with COVID-19, 3.7% complained about sleep disturbances while 2.5% developed tremors or sweating in their hands when they thought about Coronavirus. In addition, Death anxiety related to the COVID-19 pandemic was one of the most fear-related factors (B = 0.191, 95% CI (0.172 to 0.211), P-value < 0.0001). CONCLUSION: This study provides insights on the impact of COVID-19 on individuals at the level of fear in Lebanon. Death anxiety was identified as the most significant predictor of fear related to the COVID-19 pandemic. Considering the negative psychological effects of fear, it is necessary to educate the adults on how to deal with death anxiety and implement psychological interventions and counseling programs to relieve fear and improve the mental health of Lebanese adults.

Immunohistochemical assessment of cannabinoid type-1 receptor (CB1R) and its correlation with clinicopathological parameters in glioma.

Background: Glioma is the most frequent primary brain tumor and one of the most aggressive forms of cancer. Recently, numerous studies have focused on cannabinoids as a new therapeutic approach due to their antineoplastic effects through activation of the cannabinoid receptors. This study aimed to investigate the immunohistochemical expression level of cannabinoid type-1 receptors (CB1R) in human glioma samples and evaluate its clinicopathologic significance. Materials and methods: We analyzed the expression of CB1R in 61 paraffin-embedded glioma and 4 normal brain tissues using automated immunohistochemical assay. CB1R expression was categorized into high versus low expression levels. Statistical analyses were performed to evaluate the association between CB1R and phosphorylated extracellular signal-related kinase (p-ERK) expression levels and the clinicopathologic features of glioma. Results: Our results showed that CB1R immunopositivity was seen in 59 of 61 cases (96.7%). CB1R was down-expressed in glioma compared to normal brain tissues. However, CB1R expression was not correlated with clinicopathological parameters except for p-ERK. Conclusion: Our findings indicate the down-expression of CB1R in glioma tissues when compared to non-cancerous brain tissues. This change in CB1R expression in gliomas should be further tested regardless of the clinicopathological findings to provide a therapeutic advantage in glioma patients.

Cross-cultural adaptation and validation of the Arabic Project for the Epidemiological Analysis of Critical Care Patients (PAEEC) scale in individuals with traumatic brain injury in Lebanon.

The aim of this study is to cross-culturally adapt the Project for the Epidemiological Analysis of Critical Care Patients (PAEEC) Quality of Life (QoL) scale into the Arabic language and to examine its clinimetric properties, including validity and reliability among Lebanese native speaker with traumatic brain injury (TBI). This is a cross-sectional study including 49 men with TBI aged between 20 and 59 years. The Arabic version of the PAEEC (PAEEC-A) was administered to the subjects or their primary caregiver as well as the Short Form Health Survey 36 (SF-36). The internal consistency, test-retest reliability, content, construct and convergent validity were evaluated. The PAEEC-A displayed high internal consistency (Chronbach's alpha = 0.916) and test-retest reliability (Intraclass Correlation coefficient = 0.966). Exploratory factor analysis extracted a 3-factor model that explained 68.48% of the total variance. As for the convergent validity, Spearman correlations between the PAEEC-A total score and the physical and mental components of the SF-36 were -0.788 and -0.794, respectively (p-value < 0.0001 for both). The findings indicate that the PAEEC-A has robust clinimetric properties and is a valid and reliable quality of life measure among Lebanese men with traumatic brain injury.

New insights into the role of fibroblast growth factors in Alzheimer's disease.

Alzheimer's disease (AD), acknowledged as the most common progressive neurodegenerative disorder, is the leading cause of dementia in the elderly. The characteristic pathologic hallmarks of AD-including the deposition of extracellular senile plaques (SP) formation, intracellular neurofibrillary tangles, and synaptic loss, along with prominent vascular dysfunction and cognitive impairment-have been observed in patients. Fibroblast growth factors (FGFs), originally characterized as angiogenic factors, are a large family of signaling molecules that are implicated in a wide range of biological functions in brain development, maintenance and repair, as well as in the pathogenesis of brain-related disorders including AD. Many studies have focused on the implication of FGFs in AD pathophysiology. In this review, we will provide a summary of recent findings regarding the role of FGFs and their receptors in the pathogenesis of AD, and discuss the possible opportunities for targeting these molecules as novel treatment strategies in AD.

The safety and effectiveness of mirabegron in Parkinson's disease patients with overactive bladder: a randomized controlled trial.

PURPOSE: To assess the safety and effectiveness of mirabegron in patients with PD complaining of overactive bladder (OAB). PATIENTS AND METHODS: From January 2017 to November 2020, we performed a prospective randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled trial that enrolled PD patients with symptoms of OAB. The total duration of the study was 13 weeks, comprising a 1-week screening period and a 12-week treatment period. A total of 110 patients were randomized in one of two groups: treatment group (mirabegron 50 mg) or placebo group. The primary outcomes of our study were the change from baseline in OAB symptom score (OABSS) and the overactive bladder questionnaire short form (OAB-q SF) score. The secondary outcomes were the change from baseline in the mean number of micturitions/24 hours, the mean number of urgency episodes/24 hours, the mean number of urgency incontinence episodes/24 hours and the mean number of nocturia episodes/night, volume voided/micturition (ml) as recorded on a 3-day bladder diary. Safety assessments included adverse events, electrocardiogram, QT corrected for heart rate using Fridericia's correction (QTcF) interval and blood pressure and pulse rate measurements. RESULTS: There was a significant improvement in the primary outcome and secondary outcome measures in the treatment group compared to the placebo group. Adverse events were mild and the same in the two groups. The cardiovascular safety profile was high. This study is limited by its sample size and its short follow-up period. CONCLUSIONS: Mirabegron is a promising drug to control OAB symptoms in patients with PD with an excellent safety profile.

Stroop color and word test (SCWT): Normative data for the Lebanese adult population.

The Stroop Color and Word Test (SCWT) is one of the most commonly used measures to assess multiple cognitive functions. Several studies have shown that SCWT performance is influenced by different demographic factors and have recommended the necessity of generating normative data in different cultures. The present study aims to explore the effect of gender, age, and education on SCWT scores and to generate normative data for the Lebanese healthy adults. A sample of 321 healthy participants aged 18 and above was recruited from different Lebanese regions. The SCWT was administered to the participants. A regression-based strategy was applied to generate normative data. The results showed a statistically significant effect of age and education on the SCWT scores whereas no significant effect for gender was found. An interactive calculator was created to calculate estimated Z-scores based on corresponding predictions of the linear regression model. The calculator also provides percentile ranks. The present study is the first to generate normative data for the SCWT test in Lebanon. Neuropsychologists in Lebanon will benefit from this outcome to improve the accurate detection of executive function deficits in clinical settings for the Lebanese adult population.

Psychometric evaluation of the Lebanese Arabic version of the Dental Fear Survey: a cross-sectional study.

BACKGROUND: Dental fear is a prevalent problem that can lead to poor dental health. The Kleinknecht's Dental Fear Survey (DFS) is one of the used scales to assess dental fear. The present study aims to evaluate the psychometric properties of the Lebanese Arabic version of the DFS (DFS-A) and to determine the optimal cut-off to identify dental fear as well as the correlates of dental fear in a group of Lebanese adults dental patients. METHODS: A cross-sectional study was conducted among a group of 442 dental patients (18-65 years) recruited at 29 dental clinics from March to June 2019. Patients completed a questionnaire including questions about demographic characteristics, previous bad dental experience, trauma's experience period, the sensation of nausea during dental treatment, the DFS-A scale, the Lebanese Arabic version of the Modified Dental Anxiety Scale (MDAS-A), and a general question about dental fear. RESULTS: DFS-A revealed evidence of adequate psychometric properties. DFS-A scale demonstrated high internal consistency (cronbach's alpha = 0.93). Test-retest reliability assessment demonstrated strong reproducibility of the DFS-A scale score (ICC = 0.92 with 95% CI (0.83-0.96), p value < 0.0001 (N = 30). Confirmatory factor analysis revealed a three-factor structure of the DFS-A reflecting fear associated with specific dental stimuli and procedures, patterns of dental avoidance and anticipatory anxiety, and physiologic arousal during dental treatment. A significant correlation was found between DFS-A and the MDAS-A indicating a good convergent validity. The optimal cut-off point to identify patients with and without dental fear is 41. Considering this cut-off score, the prevalence of dental fear in our sample was reported at 33.8%. Multivariable analysis showed that having previous scary and painful dental experiences, a sensation of nausea during treatment, and having dental anxiety were identified as predictors of dental fear. CONCLUSION: The adapted Arabic version of the DFS (DFS-A) is a valid tool to evaluate dental fear among Lebanese adult patients.

Assessment of non-progressive dysarthria: practice and attitude of speech and language therapists in Lebanon.

BACKGROUND: Non-progressive dysarthria is an acquired motor speech disorder resulting from neurological diseases such as stroke and traumatic brain injury. The evidence base for the assessment of non-progressive dysarthria remains limited with professional practices relying mainly on therapists' clinical experience. Limited information on the assessment practices of Lebanese speech and language therapists (SLTs) is available. Such information is crucial for the development of adequate therapy services for clients with non-progressive dysarthria. This study aims to explore the assessment practices and attitudes of Lebanese SLTs working with adults with non-progressive dysarthria and to investigate their adherence to the framework of the World Health Organization's International Classification of Functioning, Disability and Health (ICF). METHODS: A cross-sectional study was conducted in Lebanon between March and May 2021. Data was collected through an online survey that included information on socio-demographic characteristics, practices, and attitudes of SLTs who assess adults with non-progressive dysarthria. RESULTS: A total of 50 Lebanese SLTs responded to the survey. The majority of SLTs (78%) assessed clients with non-progressive dysarthria across all ICF domains. SLTs reported dissatisfaction with the available assessment tools (64%) and reliance on informal tools (84%). In addition, 68% of the SLTs suggested the crucial need for the development of Arabic formal assessments that can quantitatively evaluate dysarthria and determine severity. The survey also showed that the respondents demonstrated a preference for the use of impairment-based tools. CONCLUSION: It can be concluded that the assessment practices of Lebanese SLTs, generally, follow the international trend and the recommended professional guidelines. Further research initiatives should be held to develop Arabic formal assessment tools for non-progressive dysarthria.

Biomarkers in Neuroblastoma: An Insight into Their Potential Diagnostic and Prognostic Utilities.

OPINION STATEMENT: Neuroblastoma (NB) is a heterogeneous solid tumor of the pediatric population that originates from neural crest cells and affects the developing sympathetic nervous system. It is the most common neuroblastic tumor accounting for approximately 10% of all childhood cancers and 10-15% of pediatric tumor mortalities. The outcomes range from spontaneous tumor regression in low-risk groups to metastasis and death even after multimodal therapy in high-risk groups. Hence, the detection of NB at an early stage improves outcomes and provides a better prognosis for patients. Early detection and prognosis of NB depend on specific molecules termed biomarkers which can be tissue-specific or circulating. Certain biomarkers are employed in the classification of NB into different groups to improve the treatment and prognosis, and others can be used as therapeutic targets. Therefore, novel biomarker discovery is essential for the early detection of NB, predicting the course of the disease, and developing new targeted treatment strategies. In this review, we aim to summarize the literature pertinent to some important biomarkers of NB and discuss the prognostic role of these biomarkers as well as their potential role in targeted therapy.

Morphological changes in amblyopic eyes in choriocapillaris and Sattler's layer in comparison to healthy eyes, and in retinal nerve fiber layer in comparison to fellow eyes through quantification of mean reflectivity: A pilot study.

PURPOSE: Establishing the reliability of a new method to check the mean retinal and choroidal reflectivity and using it to find retinal and choroid changes in amblyopia. METHODS: Design: Retrospective case-control. Population: 28 subjects of which 10 were healthy controls (20 eyes): 8 with refractive errors, 1 with strabismus, and 1 with both. 18 patients with unilateral amblyopia included: 7 anisometropic, 6 isoametropic, 1 strabismic, and 4 combined. Mean participants' age: 13.77 years ± 10.28. Observation procedures: SD-OCT and ImageJ. Main outcome measure: mean reflectivity of retinal and choroid layers. Amblyopic, fellow, and healthy eyes were compared. RESULTS: The method of measuring reflectivity is good to excellent reliability for all regions of interest except the fourth. The mean reflectivity of the choriocapillaris and Sattler's layer in amblyopic eyes were significantly lower than in healthy eyes (p = 0.003 and p = 0.008 respectively). The RNFL reflectivity was lower than that of fellow eyes (p = 0.025). Post-hoc pairwise comparisons showed statistically significant differences between amblyopic and healthy eyes for choriocapillaris (p = 0.018) and Sattler's (p = 0.035), and between amblyopic and fellow eyes for RNFL (p = 0.039). CONCLUSION: A decrease in reflectivity of the choriocapillaris and Sattler's in amblyopic compared to healthy eyes, and a decrease in reflectivity of the RNFL in the amblyopic compared to fellow eyes, indicate that the pathophysiology is partly peripheral and might be bilateral.