Aurelia aurita Ephyrae Reshape a Coastal Microbial Community.

Over the last two decades, increasing attention has been paid to the impact of jellyfish blooms on marine communities. Aurelia aurita is one of the most studied of the Scyphozoans, and several studies have been carried out to describe its role as a top-down controller within the classical food web. However, little data are available to define the effects of these jellyfish on microbial communities. The aims of this study were to describe the predation impact of A. aurita ephyrae on a natural microplanktonic assemblage, and to determine any reshaping effects on the prokaryote community composition and functioning. Surface coastal water was used to set up a 24-h grazing experiment in microcosms. Samples were collected to determine the variations in prey biomass, heterotrophic carbon production (HCP), extracellular leucine aminopeptidase activity, and grazing pressure. A next-generation sequencing technique was used to investigate biodiversity shifts within the prokaryote and protist communities through the small subunit rRNA tag approach. This study shows that A. aurita ephyrae were responsible for large decreases in the abundances of the more motile microplankton groups, such as tintinnids, Dinophyceae, and aloricate ciliates. Bacillariophyceae and Mediophyceae showed smaller reductions. No evidence of selective predation emerged in the analysis of the community diversity down to the family level. The heterotrophic prokaryote biomass increased significantly (by up to 45%), in parallel with increases in HCP and leucine aminopeptidase activity (40%). Significant modifications were detected in prokaryotic community composition. Some classes of Gammaproteobacteria and Flavobacteriia showed higher relative abundances when exposed to A. aurita ephyrae, while there was a net decrease for Alphaproteobacteria. Overall, this study provides new insight into the effects of A. aurita on microbial communities, underlining their selective predation toward the more motile groups of microplankton and their impact on prokaryotic assemblages, by favoring blooms of copiotrophic taxa.

Dispersal similarly shapes both population genetics and community patterns in the marine realm.

Dispersal plays a key role to connect populations and, if limited, is one of the main processes to maintain and generate regional biodiversity. According to neutral theories of molecular evolution and biodiversity, dispersal limitation of propagules and population stochasticity are integral to shaping both genetic and community structure. We conducted a parallel analysis of biological connectivity at genetic and community levels in marine groups with different dispersal traits. We compiled large data sets of population genetic structure (98 benthic macroinvertebrate and 35 planktonic species) and biogeographic data (2193 benthic macroinvertebrate and 734 planktonic species). We estimated dispersal distances from population genetic data (i.e., FST vs. geographic distance) and from ß-diversity at the community level. Dispersal distances ranked the biological groups in the same order at both genetic and community levels, as predicted by organism dispersal ability and seascape connectivity: macrozoobenthic species without dispersing larvae, followed by macrozoobenthic species with dispersing larvae and plankton (phyto- and zooplankton). This ranking order is associated with constraints to the movement of macrozoobenthos within the seabed compared with the pelagic habitat. We showed that dispersal limitation similarly determines the connectivity degree of communities and populations, supporting the predictions of neutral theories in marine biodiversity patterns.

Microbial assemblages for environmental quality assessment: Knowledge, gaps and usefulness in the European Marine Strategy Framework Directive.

The EU Marine Strategy Framework Directive 2008/56/EC (MSFD) defines a framework for Community actions in the field of marine environmental policy in order to achieve and/or maintain the Good Environmental Status (GES) of the European seas by 2020. Microbial assemblages (from viruses to microbial-sized metazoa) provide a major contribution to global biodiversity and play a crucial role in the functioning of marine ecosystems, but are largely ignored by the MSFD. Prokaryotes are only seen as "microbial pathogens," without defining their role in GES indicators. However, structural or functional prokaryotic variables (abundance, biodiversity and metabolism) can be easily incorporated into several MSFD descriptors (i.e. D1. biodiversity, D4. food webs, D5. eutrophication, D8. contaminants and D9. contaminants in seafood) with beneficial effects. This review provides a critical analysis of the current MSFD descriptors and illustrates the reliability and advantages of the potential incorporation of some prokaryotic variables within the set of indicators of marine environmental quality. Following a cost/benefit analysis against scientific and economic criteria, we conclude that marine microbial components, and particularly prokaryotes, are highly effective for detecting the effects of anthropogenic pressures on marine environments and for assessing changes in the environmental health status. Thus, we recommend the inclusion of these components in future implementations of the MSFD.

The Mediterranean Sea regime shift at the end of the 1980s, and intriguing parallelisms with other European basins.

BACKGROUND: Regime shifts are abrupt changes encompassing a multitude of physical properties and ecosystem variables, which lead to new regime conditions. Recent investigations focus on the changes in ecosystem diversity and functioning associated to such shifts. Of particular interest, because of the implication on climate drivers, are shifts that occur synchronously in separated basins. PRINCIPAL FINDINGS: In this work we analyze and review long-term records of Mediterranean ecological and hydro-climate variables and find that all point to a synchronous change in the late 1980s. A quantitative synthesis of the literature (including observed oceanic data, models and satellite analyses) shows that these years mark a major change in Mediterranean hydrographic properties, surface circulation, and deep water convection (the Eastern Mediterranean Transient). We provide novel analyses that link local, regional and basin scale hydrological properties with two major indicators of large scale climate, the North Atlantic Oscillation index and the Northern Hemisphere Temperature index, suggesting that the Mediterranean shift is part of a large scale change in the Northern Hemisphere. We provide a simplified scheme of the different effects of climate vs. temperature on pelagic ecosystems. CONCLUSIONS: Our results show that the Mediterranean Sea underwent a major change at the end of the 1980s that encompassed atmospheric, hydrological, and ecological systems, for which it can be considered a regime shift. We further provide evidence that the local hydrography is linked to the larger scale, northern hemisphere climate. These results suggest that the shifts that affected the North, Baltic, Black and Mediterranean (this work) Seas at the end of the 1980s, that have been so far only partly associated, are likely linked as part a northern hemisphere change. These findings bear wide implications for the development of climate change scenarios, as synchronous shifts may provide the key for distinguishing local (i.e., basin) anthropogenic drivers, such as eutrophication or fishing, from larger scale (hemispheric) climate drivers.

Climate change and the potential spreading of marine mucilage and microbial pathogens in the Mediterranean Sea.

BACKGROUND: Marine snow (small amorphous aggregates with colloidal properties) is present in all oceans of the world. Surface water warming and the consequent increase of water column stability can favour the coalescence of marine snow into marine mucilage, large marine aggregates representing an ephemeral and extreme habitat. Marine mucilage characterize aquatic systems with altered environmental conditions. METHODOLOGY/PRINCIPAL FINDINGS: We investigated, by means of molecular techniques, viruses and prokaryotes within the mucilage and in surrounding seawater to examine the potential of mucilage to host new microbial diversity and/or spread marine diseases. We found that marine mucilage contained a large and unexpectedly exclusive microbial biodiversity and hosted pathogenic species that were absent in surrounding seawater. We also investigated the relationship between climate change and the frequency of mucilage in the Mediterranean Sea over the last 200 years and found that the number of mucilage outbreaks increased almost exponentially in the last 20 years. The increasing frequency of mucilage outbreaks is closely associated with the temperature anomalies. CONCLUSIONS/SIGNIFICANCE: We conclude that the spreading of mucilage in the Mediterranean Sea is linked to climate-driven sea surface warming. The mucilage can act as a controlling factor of microbial diversity across wide oceanic regions and could have the potential to act as a carrier of specific microorganisms, thereby increasing the spread of pathogenic bacteria.

Ecological advantages from light adaptation and heterotrophic-like behavior in Synechococcus harvested from the Gulf of Trieste (Northern Adriatic Sea).

A preliminary study was carried out on a picocyanobacterial mixed culture harvested from the Gulf of Trieste (Northern Adriatic) and identified as Synechococcus spp. both by transmission electron microscopy observations, biliprotein composition and molecular analyses. Absorption and fluorescence spectra revealed phycourobilin and phycoerythrobilin chromophores, suggesting the presence of both CU- and C-phycoerythrin, besides phycocyanobilin chromophores typical for phycocyanins and allophycocyanins. Both biliprotein analyses and molecular identification indicated the presence of at least two Synechococcus subgroups presumably differing either in phycoerythrin type or in physiological traits. Among the exoenzymatic activities acting on different substrates, only aminopeptidase showed high hydrolysis rates and the uptake of organic molecules was positive for leucine but not for thymidine. The protein carbon mobilized was high compared with the leucine incorporation rates, resulting in low percentages of newly mobilized carbon utilized by cultures. The organic carbon incorporated as leucine was compared with the photosynthetically produced one, and the balance between the phototrophic- and heterotrophic-like processes was c. 3 : 1. Our findings suggest that the Synechococcus heterotrophy plays an important role in cell's metabolism, and that the photoheterotrophic behavior, together with their chromatic adaptation capability, might represent the key for the absolute dominance of this genus in the Adriatic Sea.

Inter-annual variations of planktonic food webs in the northern Adriatic Sea.

The temporal dynamics of microphytoplankton, microzooplankton and mesozooplankton were monitored over 37 months in the Adriatic Sea in order to identify alterations in the plankton structures, which can lead to, or enhance the production of macro-aggregates, that affected the entire northern basin in summers 2000 and 2002, and to assess any negative effects of mucilage on plankton temporal patterns. Samples were collected monthly, from June 1999 to July 2002, on three transects at 9 stations across the northern and central Adriatic Sea. Besides the high year-to-year variations in abundances and taxonomical composition, plankton communities only showed a clear seasonal succession during 2001, when since April a grazing food web developed and was able to control large sized phytoplankton increase. In spring-summer 2000 and 2002 consumer abundances remained quite low and the dominant mesozooplankton summer species (Penilia avirostris) did not reach its usual summer maximum. The lack of an efficient top control was more evident on the northernmost transect, where generally grazing food web prevails over the microbial one. A large part of the microphytoplankton blooms, although not particularly intense, was exported to the bottom in the particulate phase, where it was processed by bacteria, enhancing the production of refractory dissolved material.

Mucilage microcosms.

In the summers of 2000, 2001 and 2002, large amounts of sticky mucilaginous material aggregated to form masses of impressive dimensions over large areas of the Adriatic Sea, particularly in its northern part. Aggregates differing in size were sampled by SCUBA divers and submitted to chemical (nutrient and organic matter concentrations) and biological analysis (virus, bacteria and phytoplankton abundances and bacterial metabolism). Suspended and sinking mucilaginous aggregates were biota-rich environments where the abundance of planktonic organisms and the concentration of nutrients were orders of magnitude higher than in the surrounding seawater. The embedded phytoplankton was mostly composed of diatoms, but the dinoflagellate Gonyaulax fragilis, previously reported in association with the aggregates, was also present. A variety of processes occurred within the mucilaginous aggregates which resulted in the transformation of the organic matter composition and lability and contributed to a partial degradation of mucilage. For an efficient degradation of mucilage, several conditions are necessary: high bacterial abundance and activity and an efficient recycling of nutrients within the aggregates. Most of these conditions, appear to change depending on the type and age of the aggregate. During the first phase of aggregation (cobwebs and ribbons), bacterial activities addressed the degradation of organic matter, particularly that of the nitrogen fraction. The degradation products were rapidly taken up by bacteria, supporting an increase in their abundance and production. In aged mucilage (clouds), the degradation processes decreased and the bacterial metabolism suggested the presence of new organic labile compounds probably due to phytoplankton production. On the basis of our results, stringers, generally considered the first step of the aggregation process, seemed to be the result of a mechanical disruption of other types of aggregates.

Imbalance between phytoplankton production and bacterial carbon demand in relation to mucilage formation in the Northern Adriatic Sea.

Spatial and temporal changes in phytoplankton production and bacterial C demand were investigated at four stations in the Northern Adriatic Sea over 3 years. The effect of the Po River plume was observed at the western stations; in particular, the northernmost one (B06) showed the highest values of primary production, both as hourly peaks (up to 14 mg C m(-3) h(-1)) and daily water column integrated values (up to 740 mg C m(-2) day(-1)), the southern station (C04) was only sporadically influenced and did not differ significantly from the easternmost ones (C12 and B13), where the lowest TPP values were recorded (around 1 mg C m(-3) h(-1)). In this study the first in situ data are reported on short-term phytoplankton C extra cellular release in the Northern Adriatic Sea. At every station a considerable percentage of primary production (PER>20% as an average, with peaks of up to 70%) was released as dissolved organic carbon. In particular, an association of fairly high PER (>10%) and specific production (Pb>10 mg C mg chl(-1) h(-1)) was observed from spring to summer, when the mucilage phenomenon usually starts. This result might suggest the presence of an uncoupling between photosynthesis and growth, probably related with nutrient availability, which would be responsible for a high production of extra cellular organic carbon. Phytoplankton primary production and bacterial carbon production were closely related and bacterial C production accounted, on average, for a higher percentage of primary production than the values typically reported in the literature on aquatic environments. The flow of organic matter from phytoplankton to bacteria seems to satisfy the bacterial carbon demand during most of the spring and summer, at least in the upper water layers. However, during the summer, there is evidence that BCD sometimes exceeds the amount of C produced by phytoplankton. Neither phytoplankton nor bacterial production showed significant differences over the relevant years, and their absolute values did not change when comparing periods with or without mucilage. However, there were indications of an uncoupling between phytoplankton photosynthesis and growth and of a shift from an autotrophic to a heterotrophic metabolism, especially during the spring and summer period when mucilage might occur.