Learning enhances representations of taste-guided decisions in the mouse gustatory insular cortex.

Learning to discriminate overlapping gustatory stimuli that predict distinct outcomes-a feat known as discrimination learning-can mean the difference between ingesting a poison or a nutritive meal. Despite the obvious importance of this process, very little is known about the neural basis of taste discrimination learning. In other sensory modalities, this form of learning can be mediated by either the sharpening of sensory representations or the enhanced ability of "decision-making" circuits to interpret sensory information. Given the dual role of the gustatory insular cortex (GC) in encoding both sensory and decision-related variables, this region represents an ideal site for investigating how neural activity changes as animals learn a novel taste discrimination. Here, we present results from experiments relying on two-photon calcium imaging of GC neural activity in mice performing a taste-guided mixture discrimination task. The task allows for the recording of neural activity before and after learning induced by training mice to discriminate increasingly similar pairs of taste mixtures. Single-neuron and population analyses show a time-varying pattern of activity, with early sensory responses emerging after taste delivery and binary, choice-encoding responses emerging later in the delay before a decision is made. Our results demonstrate that, while both sensory and decision-related information is encoded by GC in the context of a taste mixture discrimination task, learning and improved performance are associated with a specific enhancement of decision-related responses.

Learning enhances representations of taste-guided decisions in the mouse gustatory insular cortex.

Learning to discriminate overlapping gustatory stimuli that predict distinct outcomes - a feat known as discrimination learning - can mean the difference between ingesting a poison or a nutritive meal. Despite the obvious importance of this process, very little is known on the neural basis of taste discrimination learning. In other sensory modalities, this form of learning can be mediated by either sharpening of sensory representations, or enhanced ability of "decision-making" circuits to interpret sensory information. Given the dual role of the gustatory insular cortex (GC) in encoding both sensory and decision-related variables, this region represents an ideal site for investigating how neural activity changes as animals learn a novel taste discrimination. Here we present results from experiments relying on two photon calcium imaging of GC neural activity in mice performing a taste-guided mixture discrimination task. The task allows for recording of neural activity before and after learning induced by training mice to discriminate increasingly similar pairs of taste mixtures. Single neuron and population analyses show a time-varying pattern of activity, with early sensory responses emerging after taste delivery and binary, choice encoding responses emerging later in the delay before a decision is made. Our results demonstrate that while both sensory and decision-related information is encoded by GC in the context of a taste mixture discrimination task, learning and improved performance are associated with a specific enhancement of decision-related responses.

Inhibitory Gating of Thalamocortical Inputs onto Rat Gustatory Insular Cortex.

In primary gustatory cortex (GC), a subregion of the insular cortex, neurons show anticipatory activity, encode taste identity and palatability, and their activity is related to decision-making. Inactivation of the gustatory thalamus, the parvicellular region of the ventral posteromedial thalamic nucleus (VPMpc), dramatically reduces GC taste responses, consistent with the hypothesis that VPMpc-GC projections carry taste information. Recordings in awake rodents reported that taste-responsive neurons can be found across GC, without segregated spatial mapping, raising the possibility that projections from the taste thalamus may activate GC broadly. In addition, we have shown that cortical inhibition modulates the integration of thalamic and limbic inputs, revealing a potential role for GABA transmission in gating sensory information to GC. Despite this wealth of information at the system level, the synaptic organization of the VPMpc-GC circuit has not been investigated. Here, we used optogenetic activation of VPMpc afferents to GC in acute slice preparations from rats of both sexes to investigate the synaptic properties and organization of VPMpc afferents in GC and their modulation by cortical inhibition. We hypothesized that VPMpc-GC synapses are distributed across GC, but show laminar- and cell-specific properties, conferring computationally flexibility to how taste information is processed. We also found that VPMpc-GC synaptic responses are strongly modulated by the activity regimen of VPMpc afferents, as well as by cortical inhibition activating GABAA and GABAB receptors onto VPMpc terminals. These results provide a novel insight into the complex features of thalamocortical circuits for taste processing.SIGNIFICANCE STATEMENT We report that the input from the primary taste thalamus to the primary gustatory cortex (GC) shows distinct properties compared with primary thalamocortical synapses onto other sensory areas. Ventral posteromedial thalamic nucleus afferents in GC make synapses with excitatory neurons distributed across all cortical layers and display frequency-dependent short-term plasticity to repetitive stimulation; thus, they do not fit the classic distinction between drivers and modulators typical of other sensory thalamocortical circuits. Thalamocortical activation of GC is gated by cortical inhibition, providing local corticothalamic feedback via presynaptic ionotropic and metabotropic GABA receptors. The connectivity and inhibitory control of thalamocortical synapses in GC highlight unique features of the thalamocortical circuit for taste.

Temporal progression along discrete coding states during decision-making in the mouse gustatory cortex.

The mouse gustatory cortex (GC) is involved in taste-guided decision-making in addition to sensory processing. Rodent GC exhibits metastable neural dynamics during ongoing and stimulus-evoked activity, but how these dynamics evolve in the context of a taste-based decision-making task remains unclear. Here we employ analytical and modeling approaches to i) extract metastable dynamics in ensemble spiking activity recorded from the GC of mice performing a perceptual decision-making task; ii) investigate the computational mechanisms underlying GC metastability in this task; and iii) establish a relationship between GC dynamics and behavioral performance. Our results show that activity in GC during perceptual decision-making is metastable and that this metastability may serve as a substrate for sequentially encoding sensory, abstract cue, and decision information over time. Perturbations of the model's metastable dynamics indicate that boosting inhibition in different coding epochs differentially impacts network performance, explaining a counterintuitive effect of GC optogenetic silencing on mouse behavior.

Taste.

In his book on the ecology of perception (An Immense World: How Animal Senses Reveal the Hidden, 2022), science writer Ed Yong emphasizes the simplicity of taste. He writes: "Taste, then, is the simpler sense. As we've seen, smell covers a practically infinite selection of molecules with an indescribably vast range of characteristics, which the nervous system represents through a combinatorial code so fiendish that scientists have barely begun to crack it. Taste, by contrast, boils down to just five basic qualities in humans - salt, sweet, bitter, sour, and umami (savory) - and perhaps a few more in other animals, which are detected through a small number of receptors. And while smell can be put to complex uses - navigating the open oceans, finding prey, and coordinating herds or colonies - taste is almost always used to make binary decisions about food. Yes or no? Good or bad? Consume or spit? It's ironic that we associate taste with connoisseurship, subtlety and fine discrimination when it is among the coarsest of senses."

Experience-dependent plasticity of gustatory insular cortex circuits and taste preferences.

Early experience with food influences taste preference in adulthood. How gustatory experience influences development of taste preferences and refinement of cortical circuits has not been investigated. Here, we exposed weanling mice to an array of taste solutions and determined the effects on the preference for sweet in adulthood. We demonstrate an experience-dependent shift in sucrose preference persisting several weeks following the termination of exposure. A shift in sucrose palatability, altered neural responsiveness to sucrose, and inhibitory synaptic plasticity in the gustatory portion of the insular cortex (GC) were also induced. The modulation of sweet preference occurred within a restricted developmental window, but restoration of the capacity for inhibitory plasticity in adult GC reactivated the sensitivity of sucrose preference to taste experience. Our results establish a fundamental link between gustatory experience, sweet preference, inhibitory plasticity, and cortical circuit function and highlight the importance of early life nutrition in setting taste preferences.

NIH Workshop Report: sensory nutrition and disease.

In November 2019, the NIH held the "Sensory Nutrition and Disease" workshop to challenge multidisciplinary researchers working at the interface of sensory science, food science, psychology, neuroscience, nutrition, and health sciences to explore how chemosensation influences dietary choice and health. This report summarizes deliberations of the workshop, as well as follow-up discussion in the wake of the current pandemic. Three topics were addressed: A) the need to optimize human chemosensory testing and assessment, B) the plasticity of chemosensory systems, and C) the interplay of chemosensory signals, cognitive signals, dietary intake, and metabolism. Several ways to advance sensory nutrition research emerged from the workshop: 1) refining methods to measure chemosensation in large cohort studies and validating measures that reflect perception of complex chemosensations relevant to dietary choice; 2) characterizing interindividual differences in chemosensory function and how they affect ingestive behaviors, health, and disease risk; 3) defining circuit-level organization and function that link and interact with gustatory, olfactory, homeostatic, visceral, and cognitive systems; and 4) discovering new ligands for chemosensory receptors (e.g., those produced by the microbiome) and cataloging cell types expressing these receptors. Several of these priorities were made more urgent by the current pandemic because infection with sudden acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2) and the ensuing coronavirus disease of 2019 has direct short- and perhaps long-term effects on flavor perception. There is increasing evidence of functional interactions between the chemosensory and nutritional sciences. Better characterization of this interface is expected to yield insights to promote health, mitigate disease risk, and guide nutrition policy.

Spatially Distributed Representation of Taste Quality in the Gustatory Insular Cortex of Behaving Mice.

Visual, auditory, and somatosensory cortices are topographically organized, with neurons responding to similar sensory features clustering in adjacent portions of the cortex. Such topography has not been observed in the piriform cortex, whose responses to odorants are sparsely distributed across the cortex. The spatial organization of taste responses in the gustatory insular cortex (GC) is currently debated, with conflicting evidence from anesthetized rodents pointing to alternative and mutually exclusive models. Here, we rely on calcium imaging to determine how taste and task-related variables are represented in the superficial layers of GC of alert, licking mice. Our data show that the various stimuli evoke sparse responses from a combination of broadly and narrowly tuned neurons. Analysis of the distribution of responses over multiple spatial scales demonstrates that taste representations are distributed across the cortex, with no sign of spatial clustering or topography. Altogether, data presented here support the idea that the representation of taste qualities in GC of alert mice is sparse and distributed, analogous to the representation of odorants in piriform cortex.

Layer- and Cell Type-Specific Response Properties of Gustatory Cortex Neurons in Awake Mice.

Studies in visual, auditory, and somatosensory cortices have revealed that different cell types as well as neurons located in different laminae display distinct stimulus response profiles. The extent to which these layer and cell type-specific distinctions generalize to gustatory cortex (GC) remains unknown. In this study, we performed extracellular recordings in adult female mice to monitor the activity of putative pyramidal and inhibitory neurons located in deep and superficial layers of GC. Awake, head-restrained mice were trained to lick different tastants (sucrose, salt, citric acid, quinine, and water) from a lick spout. We found that deep layer neurons show higher baseline firing rates (FRs) in GC with deep-layer inhibitory neurons displaying highest FRs at baseline and following the stimulus. GC's activity shows robust modulations before animals' contact with tastants, and this phenomenon is most prevalent in deep-layer inhibitory neurons. Furthermore, we show that licking activity strongly shapes the spiking pattern of GC pyramidal neurons, eliciting phase-locked spiking across trials and tastants. We demonstrate that there is a greater percentage of taste-coding neurons in deep versus superficial layers with chemosensitive neurons across all categories showing similar breadth of tuning, but different decoding performance. Lastly, we provide evidence for functional convergence in GC, with neurons that can show prestimulus activity, licking-related rhythmicity and taste responses. Overall, our results demonstrate that baseline and stimulus-evoked firing profiles of GC neurons and their processing schemes change as a function of cortical layer and cell type in awake mice.SIGNIFICANCE STATEMENT Sensory cortical areas show a laminar structure, with each layer composed of distinct cell types embedded in different circuits. While studies in other primary sensory areas have elucidated that pyramidal and inhibitory neurons belonging to distinct layers show distinct response properties, whether and how response properties of gustatory cortex (GC) neurons change as a function of their laminar position and cell type remains uninvestigated. Here, we show that there are several notable differences in baseline, prestimulus, and stimulus-evoked response profiles of pyramidal and inhibitory neurons belonging to deep and superficial layers of GC.

LTD at amygdalocortical synapses as a novel mechanism for hedonic learning.

A novel, pleasant taste stimulus becomes aversive if associated with gastric malaise, a form of learning known as conditioned taste aversion (CTA). CTA is common to vertebrates and invertebrates and is an important survival response: eating the wrong food may be deadly. CTA depends on the gustatory portion of the insular cortex (GC) and the basolateral nucleus of the amygdala (BLA) however, its synaptic underpinnings are unknown. Here we report that CTA was associated with decreased expression of immediate early genes in rat GC of both sexes, and with reduced amplitude of BLA-GC synaptic responses, pointing to long-term depression (LTD) as a mechanism for learning. Indeed, association of a novel tastant with induction of LTD at the BLA-GC input in vivo was sufficient to change the hedonic value of a taste stimulus. Our results demonstrate a direct role for amygdalocortical LTD in taste aversion learning.

Dynamic Representation of Taste-Related Decisions in the Gustatory Insular Cortex of Mice.

Research over the past decade has established the gustatory insular cortex (GC) as a model for studying how primary sensory cortices integrate sensory, affective, and cognitive signals. This integration occurs through time-varying patterns of neural activity. Selective silencing of GC activity during specific temporal windows provided evidence for GC's role in mediating taste palatability and expectation. Recent results also suggest that this area may play a role in decision making. However, existing data are limited to GC involvement in controlling the timing of stereotyped, orofacial reactions to aversive tastants during consumption. Here, we present electrophysiological, chemogenetic, and optogenetic results demonstrating the key role of GC in the execution of a taste-guided, reward-directed decision-making task. Mice were trained in a two-alternative choice task, in which they had to associate tastants sampled from a central spout with different actions (i.e., licking either a left or a right spout). Stimulus sampling and action were separated by a delay period. Electrophysiological recordings revealed chemosensory processing during the sampling period and the emergence of task-related, cognitive signals during the delay period. Chemogenetic silencing of GC impaired task performance. Optogenetic silencing of GC allowed us to tease apart the contribution of activity during sampling and delay periods. Although silencing during the sampling period had no effect, silencing during the delay period significantly impacted behavioral performance, demonstrating the importance of the cognitive signals processed by GC in driving decision making. Altogether, our data highlight a novel role of GC in controlling taste-guided, reward-directed choices and actions.

Central taste anatomy and physiology.

The gustatory system contributes to the flavor of foods and beverages and communicates information about nutrients and poisons. This system has evolved to detect and ultimately respond to hydrophilic molecules dissolved in saliva. Taste receptor cells, located in taste buds and distributed throughout the oral cavity, activate nerve afferents that project to the brainstem. From here, information propagates to thalamic, subcortical, and cortical areas, where it is integrated with information from other sensory systems and with homeostatic, visceral, and affective processes. There is considerable divergence, as well as convergence, of information between multiple regions of the central nervous system that interact with the taste pathways, with reciprocal connections occurring between the involved regions. These widespread interactions among multiple systems are crucial for the perception of food. For example, memory, hunger, satiety, and visceral changes can directly affect and can be affected by the experience of tasting. In this chapter, we review the literature on the central processing of taste with a specific focus on the anatomic and physiologic responses of single neurons. Emphasis is placed on how information is distributed along multiple systems with the goal of better understanding how the rich and complex sensations associated with flavor emerge from large-scale, systems-wide, interactions.

Cortical computations via metastable activity.

Metastable brain dynamics are characterized by abrupt, jump-like modulations so that the neural activity in single trials appears to unfold as a sequence of discrete, quasi-stationary 'states'. Evidence that cortical neural activity unfolds as a sequence of metastable states is accumulating at fast pace. Metastable activity occurs both in response to an external stimulus and during ongoing, self-generated activity. These spontaneous metastable states are increasingly found to subserve internal representations that are not locked to external triggers, including states of deliberations, attention and expectation. Moreover, decoding stimuli or decisions via metastable states can be carried out trial-by-trial. Focusing on metastability will allow us to shift our perspective on neural coding from traditional concepts based on trial-averaging to models based on dynamic ensemble representations. Recent theoretical work has started to characterize the mechanistic origin and potential roles of metastable representations. In this article we review recent findings on metastable activity, how it may arise in biologically realistic models, and its potential role for representing internal states as well as relevant task variables.

Disruption of Cortical Dopaminergic Modulation Impairs Preparatory Activity and Delays Licking Initiation.

Dysfunction of motor cortices is thought to contribute to motor disorders such as Parkinson's disease (PD). However, little is known on the link between cortical dopaminergic loss, abnormalities in motor cortex neural activity and motor deficits. We address the role of dopamine in modulating motor cortical activity by focusing on the anterior lateral motor cortex (ALM) of mice performing a cued-licking task. We first demonstrate licking deficits and concurrent alterations of spiking activity in ALM of head-fixed mice with unilateral depletion of dopaminergic neurons (i.e., mice injected with 6-OHDA into the medial forebrain bundle). Hemilesioned mice displayed delayed licking initiation, shorter duration of licking bouts, and lateral deviation of tongue protrusions. In parallel with these motor deficits, we observed a reduction in the prevalence of cue responsive neurons and altered preparatory activity. Acute and local blockade of D1 receptors in ALM recapitulated some of the key behavioral and neural deficits observed in hemilesioned mice. Altogether, our data show a direct relationship between cortical D1 receptor modulation, cue-evoked, and preparatory activity in ALM, and licking initiation.

Gustation and Olfaction: The Importance of Place and Time.

Animals can smell odors from the external environment or from their mouth via two routes: orthonasal and retronasal, respectively. Little is known about how the brain processes orthonasal and retronasal odors associated with taste, but a new study has revealed an important role for the gustatory cortex in such odor processing.

Rapid plasticity of visually evoked responses in rat monocular visual cortex.

Sensory cortical circuits are shaped by experience during sensitive periods in development. In the primary visual cortex (V1) altered visual experience results in changes in visual responsiveness of cortical neurons. The experience-dependent refinement of the circuit in V1 is thought to rely on competitive interactions between feedforward circuits driven by the two eyes. However, recent data have provided evidence for an additional role of cortico-cortical circuits in this process. Indeed, experience-dependent changes in intracortical circuits can be induced rapidly and may result in rapid-onset functional changes. Unilateral occlusion of vision rapidly alters visual responsiveness, synaptic strength and connectivity of local circuits in the binocular region of V1 (V1b), where the inputs from the two eyes converge. In the monocular region of rodent V1 (V1m), where feedforward inputs from the ipsilateral eye are virtually absent, visual deprivation induces rapid plasticity in local circuits; however, functional changes seem to occur only after long periods of deprivation. In V1m there is currently no evidence for functional changes occurring within a time window compatible with that of local circuit plasticity. Here, we probed the visual responsiveness of neurons in rat V1m and assessed the effect of one day unilateral eye lid suture on single neuron visual responses. We report a novel form of plasticity within V1m that occurs on a timescale consistent with the earliest known changes in synaptic strength. Our data provide new insights into how sensory experience can rapidly modulate neuronal responses, even in the absence of direct competition between feedforward thalamocortical inputs.

Processing of Intraoral Olfactory and Gustatory Signals in the Gustatory Cortex of Awake Rats.

The integration of gustatory and olfactory information is essential to the perception of flavor. Human neuroimaging experiments have pointed to the gustatory cortex (GC) as one of the areas involved in mediating flavor perception. Although GC's involvement in encoding the chemical identity and hedonic value of taste stimuli is well studied, it is unknown how single GC neurons process olfactory stimuli emanating from the mouth. In this study, we relied on multielectrode recordings to investigate how single GC neurons respond to intraorally delivered tastants and tasteless odorants dissolved in water and whether/how these two modalities converge in the same neurons. We found that GC neurons could either be unimodal, responding exclusively to taste (taste-only) or odor (odor-only), or bimodal, responding to both gustatory and olfactory stimuli. Odor responses were confirmed to result from retronasal olfaction: monitoring respiration revealed that exhalation preceded odor-evoked activity and reversible inactivation of olfactory receptors in the nasal epithelium significantly reduced responses to intraoral odorants but not to tastants. Analysis of bimodal neurons revealed that they encode palatability significantly better than the unimodal taste-only group. Bimodal neurons exhibited similar responses to palatable tastants and odorants dissolved in water. This result suggested that odorized water could be palatable. This interpretation was further supported with a brief access task, where rats avoided consuming aversive taste stimuli and consumed the palatable tastants and dissolved odorants. These results demonstrate the convergence of the chemosensory components of flavor onto single GC neurons and provide evidence for the integration of flavor with palatability coding. SIGNIFICANCE STATEMENT: Food perception and choice depend upon the concurrent processing of olfactory and gustatory signals from the mouth. The primary gustatory cortex has been proposed to integrate chemosensory stimuli; however, no study has examined the single-unit responses to intraoral odorant presentation. Here we found that neurons in gustatory cortex can respond either exclusively to tastants, exclusively to odorants, or to both (bimodal). Several differences exist between these groups' responses; notably, bimodal neurons code palatability significantly better than unimodal neurons. This group of neurons might represent a substrate for how odorants gain the quality of tastants.

Associative learning changes cross-modal representations in the gustatory cortex.

A growing body of literature has demonstrated that primary sensory cortices are not exclusively unimodal, but can respond to stimuli of different sensory modalities. However, several questions concerning the neural representation of cross-modal stimuli remain open. Indeed, it is poorly understood if cross-modal stimuli evoke unique or overlapping representations in a primary sensory cortex and whether learning can modulate these representations. Here we recorded single unit responses to auditory, visual, somatosensory, and olfactory stimuli in the gustatory cortex (GC) of alert rats before and after associative learning. We found that, in untrained rats, the majority of GC neurons were modulated by a single modality. Upon learning, both prevalence of cross-modal responsive neurons and their breadth of tuning increased, leading to a greater overlap of representations. Altogether, our results show that the gustatory cortex represents cross-modal stimuli according to their sensory identity, and that learning changes the overlap of cross-modal representations.

A gustocentric perspective to understanding primary sensory cortices.

Most of the general principles used to explain sensory cortical function have been inferred from experiments performed on neocortical, primary sensory areas. Attempts to apply a neocortical view to the study of the gustatory cortex (GC) have provided only a limited understanding of this area. Failures to conform GC to classical neocortical principles have been implicitly interpreted as a demonstration of GC's uniqueness. Here we propose to take the opposite perspective, dismissing GC's uniqueness and using principles extracted from its study as a lens for looking at neocortical sensory function. In this review, we describe three significant findings related to gustatory cortical function and advocate their relevance for understanding neocortical sensory areas.