Newborn screening analytes and structural birth defects among 27,000 newborns.

BACKGROUND: Emerging evidence suggests newborn screening analytes may yield insights into the etiologies of birth defects, yet no effort has evaluated associations between a range of newborn screening analytes and birth defects. METHODS: This population-based study pooled statewide data on birth defects, birth certificates, and newborn screening analytes from Texas occurring between January 1, 2007 and December 31, 2009. Associations between a panel of thirty-six newborn screening analytes, collected by the statewide Texas Newborn Screening Program, and the presence of a birth defect, defined as at least one of 39 birth defects diagnoses recorded by the Texas Birth Defects Registry, were assessed using regression analysis. FINDINGS: Of the 27,643 births identified, 20,205 had at least one of the 39 birth defects of interest (cases) as identified by the Texas Birth Defects Registry, while 7,438 did not have a birth defect (controls). Among 1,404 analyte-birth defect associations evaluated, 377 were significant in replication analysis. Analytes most consistently associated with birth defects included the phenylalanine/tyrosine ratio (N = 29 birth defects), tyrosine (N = 28 birth defects), and thyroxine (N = 25 birth defects). Birth defects most frequently associated with a range of analytes included gastroschisis (N = 29 analytes), several cardiovascular defects (N = 26 analytes), and spina bifida (N = 23 analytes). CONCLUSIONS: Several significant and novel associations were observed between newborn screening analytes and birth defects. While some findings could be consequences of the defects themselves or to the care provided to infants with these defects, these findings could help to elucidate mechanisms underlying the etiology of some birth defects.

The association between newborn screening analytes as measured on a second screen and childhood autism in a Texas Medicaid population.

Autism (or autism spectrum disorder [ASD]) is an often disabling childhood neurologic condition of mostly unknown cause. We previously explored whether there was an association of ASD with any analyte measured in the first newborn screening blood test. Here we explore the second screen. Our matched case-control study examined data on 3-5 year-old patients with any ASD diagnosis in the Texas Medicaid system in 2010-2012. Subjects were linked to their 2007-2009 newborn screening blood test data, which included values for 36 analytes or analyte ratios. Data were available for 3,005 cases and 6,212 controls. The most compelling associations were evident for fatty acid oxidation analytes octanoylcarnitine (C8) and octanoylcarnitine/acetylcarnitine (C8/C2). Their adjusted odds ratios comparing 10th versus first analyte deciles were between 1.42 and 1.54 in total births, term births, and males. C8 was consistent with first screen results. Adipylcarnitine (C6DC), an organic acid analyte, showed opposite results in the two screens. Several other analytes exhibiting significant associations in the first screen did not in the second. Our results provide evidence that abnormal newborn blood levels of some carnitines may be associated with risk of later ASD, possibly related to their involvement with mitochondrial function in the developing brain.

Health Supervision for Children With Neurofibromatosis Type 1.

Neurofibromatosis type 1 (NF1) is a multisystem disorder that primarily involves the skin and peripheral nervous system. Its population prevalence is approximately 1 in 3000. The condition is usually recognized in early childhood, when pigmentary manifestations emerge. Although NF1 is associated with marked clinical variability, most children affected follow patterns of growth and development within the normal range. Some features of NF1 can be present at birth, but most manifestations emerge with age, necessitating periodic monitoring to address ongoing health and developmental needs and minimize the risk of serious medical complications. In this report, we provide a review of the clinical criteria needed to establish a diagnosis, the inheritance pattern of NF1, its major clinical and developmental manifestations, and guidelines for monitoring and providing intervention to maximize the health and quality of life of a child affected.

The association between newborn screening analytes and childhood autism in a Texas Medicaid population, 2010-2012.

Autism (or autism spectrum disorder [ASD]) is an often disabling childhood neurologic condition of mostly unknown cause. It is commonly diagnosed at 3 or 4 years of age. We explored whether there was an association of any analytes measured by newborn screening tests with a later diagnosis of ASD. A database was compiled of 3-5 year-old patients with any ASD diagnosis in the Texas Medicaid system in 2010-2012. Two controls (without any ASD diagnosis) were matched to each case by infant sex and birth year/month. All study subjects were linked to their 2007-2009 birth and newborn screening laboratory records, including values for 36 analytes or analyte ratios. We examined the association of analytes/ratios with a later diagnosis of ASD. Among 3,258 cases and 6,838 controls, seven analytes (e.g., 17-hydroxyprogesterone, acylcarnitines) were associated with a later ASD diagnosis. In this exploratory study, an ASD diagnosis was associated with 7 of 36 newborn screening analytes/ratios. These findings should be replicated in other population-based datasets.

A Newborn Screening Education Best Practices Framework: Development and Adoption.

Newborn screening is a process-based public health service. Newborn screening staff and families alike are essential to maintaining the timeliness of the screening process. Newborn screening education must be accurate and accessible. Past newborn screening conferences have highlighted gaps in best practice and evidence-based guidance on newborn screening education. Sharing successful strategies across programs mitigates the scarcity of resources by cutting costs and reducing the burden of work. These factors illustrate the need for an education framework to guide newborn screening education efforts. The Newborn Screening Education Best Practices Framework responds to these issues by outlining guidance for newborn screening education approaches. Experts in the fields of newborn screening, genetics, and bioethics as well as previous research on best practice guidelines have contributed to the development of this framework. The framework outlines a process for users to evaluate newborn screening education approaches as best practices. This framework reviews best practices using a two-step approach, looking at guiding questions, implementation of the newborn screening issue, and evaluation. The framework helps the user define the characteristics of the newborn screening issue, intended audience, and practical steps to implementation, and then decide whether or not it can be used as a best practice.

Improving the Sensitivity and Positive Predictive Value in a Cystic Fibrosis Newborn Screening Program Using a Repeat Immunoreactive Trypsinogen and Genetic Analysis.

OBJECTIVE: To evaluate the performance of a new cystic fibrosis (CF) newborn screening algorithm, comprised of immunoreactive trypsinogen (IRT) in first (24-48 hours of life) and second (7-14 days of life) dried blood spot plus DNA on second dried blood spot, over existing algorithms. STUDY DESIGN: A retrospective review of the IRT/IRT/DNA algorithm implemented in Colorado, Wyoming, and Texas. RESULTS: A total of 1 520 079 newborns were screened, 32 557 (2.1%) had abnormal first IRT; 8794 (0.54%) on second. Furthermore, 14 653 mutation analyses were performed; 1391 newborns were referred for diagnostic testing; 274 newborns were diagnosed; and 201/274 (73%) of newborns had 2 mutations on the newborn screening CFTR panel. Sensitivity was 96.2%, compared with sensitivity of 76.1% observed with IRT/IRT (105 ng/mL cut-offs, P < .0001). The ratio of newborns with CF to heterozygote carriers was 1:2.5, and newborns with CF to newborns with CFTR-related metabolic syndrome was 10.8:1. The overall positive predictive value was 20%. The median age of diagnosis was 28, 30, and 39.5 days in the 3 states. CONCLUSIONS: IRT/IRT/DNA is more sensitive than IRT/IRT because of lower cut-offs (∼97 percentile or 60 ng/mL); higher cut-offs in IRT/IRT programs (>99 percentile, 105 ng/mL) would not achieve sufficient sensitivity. Carrier identification and identification of newborns with CFTR-related metabolic syndrome is less common in IRT/IRT/DNA compared with IRT/DNA. The time to diagnosis is nominally longer, but diagnosis can be achieved in the neonatal period and opportunities to further improve timeliness have been enacted. IRT/IRT/DNA algorithm should be considered by programs with 2 routine screens.

Newborn screening for severe combined immunodeficiency in 11 screening programs in the United States.

IMPORTANCE: Newborn screening for severe combined immunodeficiency (SCID) using assays to detect T-cell receptor excision circles (TRECs) began in Wisconsin in 2008, and SCID was added to the national recommended uniform panel for newborn screened disorders in 2010. Currently 23 states, the District of Columbia, and the Navajo Nation conduct population-wide newborn screening for SCID. The incidence of SCID is estimated at 1 in 100,000 births. OBJECTIVES: To present data from a spectrum of SCID newborn screening programs, establish population-based incidence for SCID and other conditions with T-cell lymphopenia, and document early institution of effective treatments. DESIGN: Epidemiological and retrospective observational study. SETTING: Representatives in states conducting SCID newborn screening were invited to submit their SCID screening algorithms, test performance data, and deidentified clinical and laboratory information regarding infants screened and cases with nonnormal results. Infants born from the start of each participating program from January 2008 through the most recent evaluable date prior to July 2013 were included. Representatives from 10 states plus the Navajo Area Indian Health Service contributed data from 3,030,083 newborns screened with a TREC test. MAIN OUTCOMES AND MEASURES: Infants with SCID and other diagnoses of T-cell lymphopenia were classified. Incidence and, where possible, etiologies were determined. Interventions and survival were tracked. RESULTS: Screening detected 52 cases of typical SCID, leaky SCID, and Omenn syndrome, affecting 1 in 58,000 infants (95% CI, 1/46,000-1/80,000). Survival of SCID-affected infants through their diagnosis and immune reconstitution was 87% (45/52), 92% (45/49) for infants who received transplantation, enzyme replacement, and/or gene therapy. Additional interventions for SCID and non-SCID T-cell lymphopenia included immunoglobulin infusions, preventive antibiotics, and avoidance of live vaccines. Variations in definitions and follow-up practices influenced the rates of detection of non-SCID T-cell lymphopenia. CONCLUSIONS AND RELEVANCE: Newborn screening in 11 programs in the United States identified SCID in 1 in 58,000 infants, with high survival. The usefulness of detection of non-SCID T-cell lymphopenias by the same screening remains to be determined.

The incidence of urea cycle disorders.

A key question for urea cycle disorders is their incidence. In the United States two UCDs, argininosuccinic synthetase and lyase deficiency, are currently detected by newborn screening. We used newborn screening data on over 6million births and data from the large US and European longitudinal registries to determine how common these conditions are. The incidence for the United States is predicted to be 1 urea cycle disorder patient for every 35,000 births presenting about 113 new patients per year across all age groups.

Association between thyroxine levels at birth and choanal atresia or stenosis among infants in Texas, 2004-2007.

BACKGROUND: The causes of choanal atresia or stenosis (CA) are largely unknown. Infant thyroxine (T(4) ) levels collected during newborn screening may be proxy measures for a risk factor present during the critical period of development. Therefore, we conducted a case-control study to examine the association between newborn T(4) levels and CA. METHODS: Data for cases with CA and controls were obtained from the Texas Birth Defects Registry for the period of 2004 to 2007. Information on infant T(4) levels at birth was obtained from the Texas Newborn Screening Program. Controls (n = 3570) were drawn from unaffected births in Texas for the same period and frequency matched to cases (n = 69) on year of birth, then linked to the newborn screening database. Logistic regression was used to evaluate the association between continuous and categorical infant T(4) levels and nonsyndromic CA. RESULTS: After adjustment for gestational age and year of birth, infant T(4) levels were inversely associated with CA (adjusted odds ratio [AOR], 0.85; 95% confidence interval [CI], 0.80-0.90). We observed a linear trend (p < 0.001) across quartiles of T(4) ; compared to infants with low levels, AORs for CA were 0.50 (95% CI, 0.28-0.91), 0.39 (95% CI, 0.20-0.75), and 0.15 (95% CI, 0.06-0.40) for infants with medium-to-low, medium, and high levels, respectively. CONCLUSIONS: Our findings suggest a role of low thyroid hormone levels in the development of CA, or that low newborn T(4) levels are potential proxy measures of a risk factor present during the critical period. Birth Defects Research (Part A), 2012.

The association between neonatal thyroxine and craniosynostosis, Texas, 2004-2007.

BACKGROUND: Craniosynostosis (CS), a structural anomaly characterized by premature fusion of cranial sutures, occurs in 1 in 2000 live births. Associations of CS with the thyroid have been reported. Neonatal thyroid hormone (T4) is evaluated nationally at birth by the Newborn Screening Program (NBS). This study evaluated the relationship between NBS T4 levels and craniosynostosis. METHODS: Live-born singleton babies born in 2004 through 2007 were identified through the Texas Birth Defects Registry (499 cases) and Texas Bureau of Vital Statistics (3570 controls) and successfully linked to analyte data available in the Texas NBS Database. Cases were classified based on the absence of other major defects (isolated cases, n = 382) and suture(s) involved. Mean T4 levels were compared between controls and cases (overall and stratified by classification). T4 levels were stratified by quintiles to evaluate differences between cases and controls within quintiles. The diagnostic utility of NBS T4 was evaluated using receiver operator characteristic (ROC) curves. RESULTS: Mean T4 levels were lower in isolated cases (16.89 µg/dl) than in controls (17.77 µg/dl; p = 0.0004). This trend persisted for sagittal (16.69 µg/dl; p = 0.002) and metopic (16.83 µg/dl; p = 0.042) CS. When stratified by quintiles, 54% of isolated lambdoid CS were in the first quintile compared to controls (p = 0.012). ROC area under the curve (AUC) was approximately 0.55 for all classifications except lambdoid (AUC = 0.73). CONCLUSION: NBS T4 levels were slightly lower among cases with nearly half of all lambdoid CS having T4 levels in the lowest quintile. However, overall NBS T4 levels are not suitable for potential screening or diagnostic application.

Chromosome catastrophes involve replication mechanisms generating complex genomic rearrangements.

Complex genomic rearrangements (CGRs) consisting of two or more breakpoint junctions have been observed in genomic disorders. Recently, a chromosome catastrophe phenomenon termed chromothripsis, in which numerous genomic rearrangements are apparently acquired in one single catastrophic event, was described in multiple cancers. Here, we show that constitutionally acquired CGRs share similarities with cancer chromothripsis. In the 17 CGR cases investigated, we observed localization and multiple copy number changes including deletions, duplications, and/or triplications, as well as extensive translocations and inversions. Genomic rearrangements involved varied in size and complexities; in one case, array comparative genomic hybridization revealed 18 copy number changes. Breakpoint sequencing identified characteristic features, including small templated insertions at breakpoints and microhomology at breakpoint junctions, which have been attributed to replicative processes. The resemblance between CGR and chromothripsis suggests similar mechanistic underpinnings. Such chromosome catastrophic events appear to reflect basic DNA metabolism operative throughout an organism's life cycle.

MECP2 duplications in six patients with complex sex chromosome rearrangements.

Duplications of the Xq28 chromosome region resulting in functional disomy are associated with a distinct clinical phenotype characterized by infantile hypotonia, severe developmental delay, progressive neurological impairment, absent speech, and proneness to infections. Increased expression of the dosage-sensitive MECP2 gene is considered responsible for the severe neurological impairments observed in affected individuals. Although cytogenetically visible duplications of Xq28 are well documented in the published literature, recent advances using array comparative genomic hybridization (CGH) led to the detection of an increasing number of microduplications spanning MECP2. In rare cases, duplication results from intrachromosomal rearrangement between the X and Y chromosomes. We report six cases with sex chromosome rearrangements involving duplication of MECP2. Cases 1-4 are unbalanced rearrangements between X and Y, resulting in MECP2 duplication. The additional Xq material was translocated to Yp in three cases (cases 1-3), and to the heterochromatic region of Yq12 in one case (case 4). Cases 5 and 6 were identified by array CGH to have a loss in copy number at Xp and a gain in copy number at Xq28 involving the MECP2 gene. In both cases, fluorescent in situ hybridization (FISH) analysis revealed a recombinant X chromosome containing the duplicated material from Xq28 on Xp, resulting from a maternal pericentric inversion. These cases add to a growing number of MECP2 duplications that have been detected by array CGH, while demonstrating the value of confirmatory chromosome and FISH studies for the localization of the duplicated material and the identification of complex rearrangements.

Recurrent microdeletions of 15q25.2 are associated with increased risk of congenital diaphragmatic hernia, cognitive deficits and possibly Diamond--Blackfan anaemia.

BACKGROUND: Congenital diaphragmatic hernia (CDH) can occur in isolation or in association with other abnormalities. We hypothesised that some cases of non-isolated CDH are caused by novel genomic disorders. METHODS AND RESULTS: In a cohort of >12, 000 patients referred for array comparative genomic hybridisation testing, we identified three individuals-two of whom had CDH--with deletions involving a ∼2.3 Mb region on chromosome 15q25.2. Two additional patients with deletions of this region have been reported, including a fetus with CDH. Clinical data from these patients suggest that recurrent deletions of 15q25.2 are associated with an increased risk of developing CDH, cognitive deficits, cryptorchidism, short stature and possibly Diamond-Blackfan anaemia (DBA). Although no known CDH-associated genes are located on 15q25.2, four genes in this region--CPEB1, AP3B2, HOMER2 and HDGFRP3--have been implicated in CNS development/function and may contribute to the cognitive deficits seen in deletion patients. Deletions of RPS17 may also predispose individuals with 15q25.2 deletions to DBA and associated anomalies. CONCLUSIONS: Individuals with recurrent deletions of 15q25.2 are at increased risk for CDH and other birth defects. A high index of suspicion should exist for the development of cognitive defects, anaemia and DBA-associated malignancies in these individuals.

Development, testing, and validation of a patient satisfaction questionnaire for use in the clinical genetics setting.

Patient satisfaction is an important component of assessing quality of care. The purpose of this study is to develop a concise patient satisfaction tool specifically for use in the clinical genetics setting. An international survey identified two domains, "Respect Given" and "Patient Questions Answered" as being important components of satisfaction in the genetic encounter. A working group of professionals assembled a 14-question pilot questionnaire that was subsequently tested in 13 clinical sites. Nearly 400 responses were used to validate the tool and ultimately construct a 7-item questionnaire. The 7-item questionnaire was found to be reliable and valid and addresses two key components of patient satisfaction: technical aspects of care and interpersonal relations. The tool is compared to other patient satisfaction tools developed for use in the clinical genetics setting. A Spanish version is also provided.

A Delphi clinical practice protocol for the management of very long chain acyl-CoA dehydrogenase deficiency.

INTRODUCTION: Very long chain acyl-CoA dehydrogenase (VLCAD) deficiency is a disorder of oxidation of long chain fat, and can present as cardiomyopathy or fasting intolerance in the first months to years of life, or as myopathy in later childhood to adulthood. Expanded newborn screening has identified a relatively high incidence of this disorder (1:31,500), but there is a dearth of evidence-based outcomes data to guide the development of clinical practice protocols. This consensus protocol is intended to assist clinicians in the diagnosis and management of screen-positive newborns for VLCAD deficiency until evidence-based guidelines are available. METHOD: The Oxford Centre for Evidence-based Medicine system was used to grade the literature review and create recommendations graded from A (evidence level of randomized clinical trials) to D (expert opinion). Delphi was used as the consensus tool. A panel of 14 experts (including clinicians, diagnostic laboratory directors and researchers) completed three rounds of survey questions and had a face-to-face meeting. RESULT: Panelists reviewed the initial evaluation of the screen-positive infant, diagnostic testing and management of diagnosed patients. Grade C and D consensus recommendations were made in each of these three areas. The panel did not reach consensus on all issues, particularly in the dietary management of asymptomatic infants diagnosed by newborn screening.

Speech delay and autism spectrum behaviors are frequently associated with duplication of the 7q11.23 Williams-Beuren syndrome region.

PURPOSE: Williams-Beuren syndrome is among the most well-characterized microdeletion syndromes, caused by recurrent de novo microdeletions at 7q11.23 mediated by nonallelic homologous recombination between low copy repeats flanking this critical region. However, the clinical phenotype associated with reciprocal microduplication of this genomic region is less well described. We investigated the molecular, clinical, neurodevelopmental, and behavioral features of seven patients with dup(7)(q11.23), including two children who inherited the microduplication from one of their parents, to more fully characterize this emerging microduplication syndrome. METHODS: Patients were identified by array-based comparative genomic hybridization. Clinical examinations were performed on seven affected probands, and detailed cognitive and behavioral evaluations were carried out on four of the affected probands. RESULTS: Our findings confirm initial reports of speech delay seen in patients with dup(7)(q11.23) and further delineate and expand the phenotypic spectrum of this condition to include communication, social interactions, and repetitive interests that are often observed in individuals diagnosed with autism spectrum disorders. CONCLUSIONS: Array-based comparative genomic hybridization is a powerful means of detecting genomic imbalances and identifying molecular etiologies in the clinic setting, including genomic disorders such as Williams-Beuren syndrome and dup(7)(q11.23). We propose that dup(7)(q11.23) syndrome may be as frequent as Williams-Beuren syndrome and a previously unrecognized cause of language delay and behavioral abnormalities. Indeed, these individuals may first be referred for evaluation of autism, even if they do not ultimately meet diagnostic criteria for an autism spectrum disorder.

Increased MECP2 gene copy number as the result of genomic duplication in neurodevelopmentally delayed males.

PURPOSE: Mutations in the MECP2 gene are associated with Rett syndrome, an X-linked mental retardation disorder in females. Mutations also cause variable neurodevelopmental phenotypes in rare affected males. Recent clinical testing for MECP2 gene rearrangements revealed that entire MECP2 gene duplication occurs in some males manifesting a progressive neurodevelopmental syndrome. METHODS: Clinical testing through quantitative DNA methods and chromosomal microarray analysis in our laboratories identified seven male patients with increased MECP2 gene copy number. RESULTS: Duplication of the entire MECP2 gene was found in six patients, and MECP2 triplication was found in one patient with the most severe phenotype. The Xq28 duplications observed in these males are unique and vary in size from approximately 200 kb to 2.2 Mb. Three of the mothers who were tested were asymptomatic duplication carriers with skewed X-inactivation. In silico analysis of the Xq28 flanking region showed numerous low-copy repeats with potential roles in recombination. CONCLUSIONS: These collective data suggest that increased MECP2 gene copy number is mainly responsible for the neurodevelopmental phenotypes in these males. These findings underscore the allelic and phenotypic heterogeneity associated with the MECP2 gene and highlight the value of molecular analysis for patient diagnosis, family members at risk, and genetic counseling.

Normal muscle respiratory chain enzymes can complicate mitochondrial disease diagnosis.

This report presents a case of mitochondrial respiratory chain deficiency in a neonate with elevated plasma lactate, hypotonia, developmental delay, and dysmorphic features. The initial biochemical analyses of muscle tissue for mitochondrial function were normal. Additional testing on skin fibroblasts performed owing to a high clinical suspicion of a possible mitochondrial disorder indicated a deficiency of mitochondrial complex I. Western blotting of samples obtained both from muscle and fibroblast tissues also revealed an extensive defect in mitochondrial respiratory chain complex I, confirming the diagnosis. These observations underscore the fact that both enzymatic and immunological assays should be undertaken in alternate tissues when muscle biopsies are inconclusive in highly suspected cases.

Relapsing diabetes can result from moderately activating mutations in KCNJ11.

Neonatal diabetes can either remit and hence be transient or else may be permanent. These two phenotypes were considered to be genetically distinct. Abnormalities of 6q24 are the commonest cause of transient neonatal diabetes (TNDM). Mutations in KCNJ11, which encodes Kir6.2, the pore-forming subunit of the ATP-sensitive potassium channel (K(ATP)), are the commonest cause of permanent neonatal diabetes (PNDM). In addition to diabetes, some KCNJ11 mutations also result in marked developmental delay and epilepsy. These mutations are more severe on functional characterization. We investigated whether mutations in KCNJ11 could also give rise to TNDM. We identified the three novel heterozygous mutations (G53S, G53R, I182V) in three of 11 probands with clinically defined TNDM, who did not have chromosome 6q24 abnormalities. The mutations co-segregated with diabetes within families and were not found in 100 controls. All probands had insulin-treated diabetes diagnosed in the first 4 months and went into remission by 7-14 months. Functional characterization of the TNDM associated mutations was performed by expressing the mutated Kir6.2 with SUR1 in Xenopus laevis oocytes. All three heterozygous mutations resulted in a reduction in the sensitivity to ATP when compared with wild-type (IC(50) approximately 30 versus approximately 7 microM, P-value for is all <0.01); however, this was less profoundly reduced than with the PNDM associated mutations. In conclusion, mutations in KCNJ11 are the first genetic cause for remitting as well as permanent diabetes. This suggests that a fixed ion channel abnormality can result in a fluctuating glycaemic phenotype. The multiple phenotypes associated with activating KCNJ11 mutations may reflect their severity in vitro.