Melioidosis in Cynomolgus Macaques ( Macaca Fascicularis ) Imported to the United States from Cambodia.

Melioidosis, a potentially fatal infectious disease of humans and animals, including nonhuman primates (NHPs), is caused by the high-consequence pathogen Burkholderia pseudomallei. This environmental bacterium is found in the soil and water of tropical regions, such as Southeast Asia, where melioidosis is endemic. The global movement of humans and animals can introduce B. pseudomallei into nonendemic regions of the United States, where environmental conditions could allow establishment of the organism. Approximately 60% of NHPs imported into the United States originate in countries considered endemic for melioidosis. To prevent the introduction of infectious agents to the United States, the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) requires newly imported NHPs to be quarantined for at least 31 d, during which time their health is closely monitored. Most diseases of public health concern that are transmissible from imported NHPs have relatively short incubation periods that fall within the 31-d quarantine period. However, animals infected with B. pseudomallei may appear healthy for months to years before showing signs of illness, during which time they can shed the organism into the environment. Melioidosis presents diagnostic challenges because it causes nonspecific clinical signs, serologic screening can produce unreliable results, and culture isolates are often misidentified on rapid commercial testing systems. Here, we present a case of melioidosis in a cynomolgus macaque (Macaca fascicularis) that developed a subcutaneous abscess after importation from Cambodia to the United States. The bacterial isolate from the abscess was initially misidentified on a commercial test. This case emphasizes the possibility of melioidosis in NHPs imported from endemic countries and its associated diagnostic challenges. If melioidosis is suspected, diagnostic samples and culture isolates should be submitted to a laboratory in the CDC Laboratory Response Network for conclusive identification and characterization of the pathogen.

Use of nonhuman primates in research in North America.

In North America, the biomedical research community faces social and economic challenges to nonhuman primate (NHP) importation that could reduce the number of NHP available for research needs. The effect of such limitations on specific biomedical research topics is unknown. The Association of Primate Veterinarians (APV), with assistance from the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, developed a survey regarding biomedical research involving NHP in the United States and Canada. The survey sought to determine the number and species of NHP maintained at APV members' facilities, current uses of NHP to identify the types of biomedical research that rely on imported animals, and members' perceived trends in NHP research. Of the 149 members contacted, 33 (22%) replied, representing diverse facility sizes and types. Cynomolgus and rhesus macaques were the most common species housed at responding institutions and comprised the majority of newly acquired and imported NHP. The most common uses for NHP included pharmaceutical research and development and neuroscience, neurology, or neuromuscular disease research. Preclinical safety testing and cancer research projects usually involved imported NHP, whereas research on aging or degenerative disease, reproduction or reproductive disease, and organ or tissue transplantation typically used domestic-bred NHP. The current results improve our understanding of the research uses for imported NHP in North America and may facilitate estimating the potential effect of any future changes in NHP accessibility for research purposes. Ensuring that sufficient NHP are available for critical biomedical research remains a pressing concern for the biomedical research community in North America.

Mosquito infection studies with Aotus monkeys and humans infected with the Chesson strain of Plasmodiun vivax.

Oocyst counts were compared between mosquitoes that fed on humans versus mosquitoes that fed on Aotus monkeys, both of which were infected with the Chesson strain of Plasmodium vivax. Oocyst counts obtained from mosquitoes fed on humans were almost 10-fold higher in number. Mosquitoes were more likely to be infected and with a higher rate of infection when they fed on monkeys before the peak in the asexual parasite count. Mosquitoes that fed on humans were more likely to be more heavily infected when fed after the peak in the asexual count. Of several species of owl monkeys, Aotus vociferans was infected at a higher frequency. On the basis of oocyst counts, Anopheles dirus were the most susceptible and An. maculatus were the least susceptible of the mosquito species tested.

Zoonotic viruses associated with illegally imported wildlife products.

The global trade in wildlife has historically contributed to the emergence and spread of infectious diseases. The United States is the world's largest importer of wildlife and wildlife products, yet minimal pathogen surveillance has precluded assessment of the health risks posed by this practice. This report details the findings of a pilot project to establish surveillance methodology for zoonotic agents in confiscated wildlife products. Initial findings from samples collected at several international airports identified parts originating from nonhuman primate (NHP) and rodent species, including baboon, chimpanzee, mangabey, guenon, green monkey, cane rat and rat. Pathogen screening identified retroviruses (simian foamy virus) and/or herpesviruses (cytomegalovirus and lymphocryptovirus) in the NHP samples. These results are the first demonstration that illegal bushmeat importation into the United States could act as a conduit for pathogen spread, and suggest that implementation of disease surveillance of the wildlife trade will help facilitate prevention of disease emergence.

Infection of mosquitoes with Plasmodium falciparum by feeding on humans and on Aotus monkeys.

Of 1,004 positive lots of mosquitoes fed on 229 humans infected with Plasmodium falciparum, 46.2% had 1-10 oocysts/(+)gut, 21.2% had 10-30 oocysts/(+)gut, 22.2% had 30-100 oocysts/(+)gut, and 10.4% had > 100 oocysts/(+) gut. The highest levels of infection occurred between 6 and 15 days after the peak in the asexual parasite count. Of 2,281 lots of Anopheles freeborni mosquitoes fed on splenectomized Aotus monkeys infected with the Santa Lucia strain of P. falciparum, 1,191 were infected (52.2%). The highest intensity infections ranged from 2.78 oocysts per positive gut in mosquitoes fed on Aotus vociferans to 6.08 oocysts per positive gut for those fed on A. lemurinus griseimembra to 10.4 oocysts per positive gut for those fed on A. nancymaae. The pattern of infection for mosquitoes fed on splenectomized Aotus monkeys was similar to that obtained by feeding on humans, but the intensity, based on oocyst/(+)gut, was much lower.

Plasmodium fieldi: observations on the Hackeri and ABI strains in Macaca mulatta monkeys and mosquitoes.

Macaca mulatta monkeys infected with the Hackeri strain of Plasmodium fieldi had maximum parasite counts ranging from 1,300 to 301,320/microL. In 43 intact animals infected with the ABI strain, the maximum parasite counts ranged from 672 to 57,189/microL (median = 15,100/microL); in 46 splenectomized monkeys, the maximum parasite count ranged from 660 to 350,000/microL (median = 52,245/microL). Transmission through Anopheles dirus mosquitoes was obtained on 11 occasions with pre-patent periods of 9-14 days. Relapses occurred between two and eight times during a 1-year period. P. fieldi has potential for testing prophylactic and radical curative drugs.

The Santa Lucia strain of Plasmodium falciparum in Aotus monkeys.

The Santa Lucia strain of Plasmodium falciparum was studied in 150 Aotus lemurinus griseimembra, 30 A. azarae boliviensis, 103 A. nancymaae, and 121 A. vociferans monkeys. All four of these splenectomized hosts supported the production of gametocytes infective to Anopheles freeborni mosquitoes. Transmission through sporozoites from An. freeborni, An. stephensi, An. maculatus, and An. albimanus mosquitoes was successful to all four species of Aotus on a total of 100 occasions with a median pre-patent period of 21 days. For the production of infective mosquitoes for vaccine challenge studies, A. l. griseimembra and A. vociferans were the most predictable hosts.

Border health: who's guarding the gate?

Changes in the global trade market have led to a thriving international pet trade in exotic animals, birds, and puppies. The flood of animals crossing the United States' borders satisfies the public demand for these pets but is not without risk. Imported pets may be infected with diseases that put animals or the public at risk. Numerous agencies work together to reduce the risk of animal disease introduction, but regulations may need to be modified to ensure compliance. With more than 280,000 dogs and 183,000 wildlife shipments being imported into the United States each year, veterinarians must remain vigilant so they can recognize potential threats quickly.

Studies on the Salvador I strain of Plasmodium vivax in non-human primates and anopheline mosquitoes.

A review is presented on studies conducted in New World monkeys and chimpanzees with the Salvador I strain of Plasmodium vivax. This isolate has been adapted to Aotus and Saimiri (squirrel) monkeys and developed as a model for the testing of antimalarial vaccines. After the injection of 10,000 sporozoites, the median prepatent period in S. boliviensis monkeys was 21.5 days. In 103 sporozoite-induced infections in splenectomized monkeys, the median maximum parasite count ranged from 2,139 to 202,368/microL, with a median maximum parasite count of 48,174/microL. Median maximum parasite counts in Aotus lemurinus griseimembra, A. nancymaae, A. azarae boliviensis, and A. vociferans monkeys were 19,902, 18,390, 21,420, and 18,210/microL, respectively and ranged from 124 to 156,000/microL. Mosquito infections were readily obtained in different species of Anopheles mosquitoes. The S. boliviensis monkey and Salvador I strain seems suitable for the testing of sporozoite and liver stage vaccines but not for blood-stage vaccines against P. vivax unless adapted further in spleen-intact Saimiri boliviensis monkeys.

The Chesson strain of plasmodium vivax in humans and different species of Aotus monkeys.

Comparison was made between the parasitemia of Chesson strain Plasmodium vivax in humans and in splenectomized Aotus lemurinus griseimembra, A. nancymaae, A. vociferans, and A. azarae boliviensis monkeys. In the monkeys, 56.3% of the animals had maximum counts > 25,000/muL and in humans 59.6% were above this peak parasitemia. In humans, it took an average of 9.3 days to reach the maximum parasite count. In monkeys with no previous infections, it took an average of 18.9 days to reach the maximum parasite count; for those with previous infections, it took an average of 15 days. Human and nonhuman primate data on this parasite suggest that splenectomized Aotus monkeys, particularly A. lemurinus griseimembra, and to a somewhat lesser extent A. vociferans, can mimic the course of Chesson malaria in humans regarding parasitemia and mosquito infection.

Adaptation of a multi-drug resistant strain of Plasmodium falciparum from Peru to Aotus lemurinus griseimembra, A. nancymaae, and A. vociferans monkeys.

A strain of Plasmodium falciparum from Peru was adapted to splenectomized Aotus nancymaae and Aotus vociferans monkeys. The Peru 134/CDC strain of P. falciparum was shown to be resistant to treatment with chloroquine in monkeys and partially resistant to mefloquine and malarone. Genetic mutations in crt, dhfr, dhps, and cytochrome b genes conferring drug resistance were also determined for this Peruvian strain of P. falciparum.

Isolates of Plasmodium inui adapted to Macaca mulatta monkeys and laboratory-reared anopheline mosquitoes for experimental study.

Plasmodium inui is a parasite of macaques and other nonhuman primates in Asia that is studied as a model for the human malaria parasite P. malariae. Presented here are descriptions of the isolation, passage histories into Macaca mulatta monkeys, and infectivity to different Anopheles spp. mosquitoes of 18 different isolates of this parasite.

Studies on sporozoite-induced and chronic infections with Plasmodium fragile in Macaca mulatta and New World monkeys.

Plasmodium fragile continues to be investigated because of its biologic similarities to the human malaria parasite, Plasmodium falciparum. Two strains of P. fragile are available for study; one strain is able to infect mosquitoes, whereas the other strain is transmissible only by blood inoculation. The Sri Lanka strain of P. fragile was transmitted to Macaca mulatta, Macaca fascicularis, Aotus lemurinus griseimembra, Aotus nancymaae, Aotus vociferans, and Saimiri boliviensis monkeys via sporozoites that developed to maturity only in Anopheles dirus mosquitoes. The prepatent periods ranged from 12 to 35 days for macaques and from 15 to 30 days for New World monkeys after intravenous injection of sporozoites. Eight rhesus monkeys were infected with the Nilgiri strain and followed for 482 days. Parasitemia in 6 animals persisted at relatively high density through the period of observation. Erythrocyte, hematocrit, and hemoglobin values reached their lowest levels 3 wk after infection and slowly recovered; however, the values did not approach preinfection levels as long as parasitemia persisted in the monkeys. The mean corpuscular volume and corpuscular hemoglobin concentration reached their peak and lowest values, respectively, at day 38 and then returned to the preinfection level. The mean corpuscular hemoglobin value decreased to its lowest level at day 87 and then returned to preinfection level.

Observations on the exoerythrocytic stages of different isolates of Plasmodium cynomolgi in hepatocytes of New World aotus and Saimiri monkeys.

Sporozoites of 3 isolates of Plasmodium cynomolgi dissected from the salivary glands of Anopheles dirus and Anopheles quadrimaculatus were injected intravenously into 9 New World monkeys. Liver stage parasites were demonstrated in all 9 animals; 7 of these animals also produced blood stages after prepatent periods of 9 to 23 days.

Aotus nancymaae as a potential model for the testing of anti-sporozoite and liver stage vaccines against Plasmodium falciparum.

The Santa Lucia strain of Plasmodium falciparum was transmitted to Aotus lemurinus griseimembra, A. azarae boliviensis, A. vociferans, and A. nancymaae monkeys by bite and by intravenous inoculation of sporozoites dissected from Anopheles freeborni, An. stephensi, An. gambiae, An. albimanus, and An. maculatus mosquitoes. The data obtained from these infections indicate that A. nancymaae can be considered a suitable host model when combined with the Santa Lucia strain of P. falciparum for the testing of candidate anti-sporozoite and liver stage vaccines.

Preliminary observations on the efficacy of a recombinant multistage Plasmodium falciparum vaccine in Aotus nancymai monkeys.

A vaccine trial was conducted to determine the efficacy of a multicomponent candidate vaccine, FALVAC-1, against Plasmodium falciparum in Aotus nancymai monkeys. After two immunizations, animals were challenged intravenously with parasites of the Vietnam Oak Knoll (FVO) strain of P. falciparum. The primary outcome was to determine the protective response of the monkeys to immunization with the FALVAC-1 antigen produced in baculovirus when combined with different adjuvants (alum, QS-21, ASO2a, CRL1005/oil, and CRL1005/saline) as compared with FALVAC-1 with FCA/FIA and antigen alone. When compared with the monkeys immunized with FALVAC-1 alone, FALVAC-1 with FCA/FIA reduced the mean parasite count (to Day 11), reduced the mean accumulated parasitemia (through Day 11), and extended the number of days to treatment. None of the other 5 antigen-adjuvant combinations were able to provide discernable levels of protection based on log(parasitemia) and log(cumulative parasitemia) to Day 11.

Plasmodium simium and Saimiri boliviensis as a model system for testing candidate vaccines against Plasmodium vivax.

Observations on Plasmodium simium infections in Saimiri boliviensis boliviensis monkeys suggest that this host-parasite combination would be a suitable model for the testing of candidate vaccines against Plasmodium vivax. To evaluate the normal course of infections, parasitemia in 52 splenectomized S. boliviensis boliviensis monkeys infected with P. simium were analyzed. The mean maximum parasite count for 31 monkeys after injection with trophozoite-infected erythrocytes was 77,580/microL. Twenty-one monkeys were infected via sporozoites, and prepatent periods ranged from 14 to 24 days with a median of 15 days. The mean maximum parasite count was 29,234/microL. The mean maximum parasite count for monkeys previously infected with Old World P. vivax was 26,337/microL versus 56,362/microL for those previously infected with New World P. vivax, possibly suggesting a closer antigenic relationship between P. simium and the Old World parasites.

Studies on two strains of Plasmodium cynomolgi in New World and Old World monkeys and mosquitoes.

Infections that cause the Gombak and Smithsonian strains of Plasmodium cynomolgi were induced in Macaca mulatta, Aotus lemurinus griseimembra, Aotus nancymai, and Saimiri boliviensis monkeys. Transmission of the Gombak strain to Aotus spp. monkeys was obtained by the injection of sporozoites dissected from the salivary glands of experimentally infected Anopheles dirus and by the bites of infected An. dirus and Anopheles farauti mosquitoes. Two S. boliviensis monkeys were infected via the injection of sporozoites dissected from An. dirus. Prepatent periods in New World monkeys ranged from 14 to 44 days, with a median of 18 days. The Smithsonian strain was transmitted via sporozoites to 1 A. lemurinus griseimembra and 9 A. nancymai monkeys. Prepatent periods ranged from 12 to 31 days.

Observations on the Vietnam Palo Alto strain of Plasmodium vivax in two species of Aotus monkeys.

Thirty-three splenectomized Aotus lemurinus griseimembra monkeys with no previous experience with malaria were infected with the Vietnam Palo Alto strain of Plasmodium vivax. The median maximum parasite count was 280,000/microl. Nine splenectomized monkeys with previous infection with Plasmodium falciparum had median maximum parasite counts of 120,000/microl. Splenectomized Aotus nancymai monkeys supported infections at a lower level. Transmission via the bites of Anopheles dirus mosquitoes was obtained in a splenectomized A. lemurinus griseimembra, with a prepatent period of 31 days. It is estimated that between 1.5 x 10(8) and 1.6 x 10(9) parasites can be removed from an infected animal for molecular or diagnostic antigenic studies.