Animal Creativity as a Function of Behavioral Innovation and Behavior Flexibility in Problem-solving Situations.

A natural approach of animal creativity through insightful problem-solving may offer a panel of how physiological, contextual, cultural and developmental variables related to each other to produce new behaviors. The spontaneous interconnection of acquire behaviors is an Insightful Problem-Solving model based on the new combination and/or chaining of behaviors that were previously and independently trained. This model seems to offer an integrative alternative for the studies of Innovation and Behavioral Flexibility because it allows the research on innovation in a scenario in which the response that solves the problem situation is not available by trial-and-error. Measuring task-appropriateness by behavior flexibility and novelty by behavior innovation under insightful problem-solving paradigm can contribute for the integration of decades of evidence in Cognitive Psychology, Neuro-ethology, Behavior Analysis and Behavioral Neurosciences. The Insightful Problem-Solving allows the independent test of behavioral innovation and behavioral flexibility as it measures the behavioral innovation inside insightful test and tests if the BF depends on variables arranged in the problem-situation and/or on the previous training (e.g. familiarity with access to appetitive stimulus in the pre-test, the number of distinct behaviors trained, and contingency changes in the post-test).

Relationship between reinforcement rate and response rate in Pavlovian and operant conditioning with compound stimuli in rats.

Harris, Andrew, and Livesey (2012) proposed that response rate (R) to a stimulus (e.g., A) of a compound (e.g., AB) would be directly related to the difference between reinforcement rate (r) during AB and the other stimulus (e.g., B). To explore the extent of this proposal to operant conditioning, three experiments were carried out. Experiment 1 replicated Harris et al. (2012 - Experiment 1) using sucrose as US in Pavlovian conditioning. In Experiment 2 rats pressed a lever under a variable interval schedule in two phases. In Training, responses during a compound stimulus AB100% were reinforced 100%, responses during B50% and C50% 50% and responses during D25%, 25% of the trials. Then, nonreinforced A trials were introduced (Probe). Results from Experiment 2 showed that r controlled the R to AB100%, B50%, C50% and D25% during training and probe, however, were inconclusive about r and R relationship during A. In Experiment 3, responses during A100% were reinforced 100% and during B50% and C50% 50% of the trials (Training). Next, nonreinforced BC trials were presented (Probe). Results from Experiment 3 showed that response rate during BC were similar to A100%, but higher than B50% and C50%, suggesting summation of B50% and C50% reinforcement rates. Overall, the results showed that Harris et al. (2012) proposal extends to discriminative operant relations.

Early social isolation increases persistence of alcohol-seeking behavior in alcohol-related contexts.

Social conditions during rearing are well known to affect adult alcohol consumption, but few experiments have explored the effects of social conditions on behaviors that are related to alcohol dependence, such as the persistence of alcohol seeking. This study compared the effects of isolation (ISO) and interaction (INT) rearing on the persistence of alcohol-seeking behavior. Rats were trained to lever press for a solution of 10% alcohol diluted in water. They were then exposed to a two-component multiple schedule of reinforcement (baseline). Responses in one component were reinforced by a higher rate of alcohol delivery (rich component, variable interval 15 s) and responses in the other component were reinforced by a lower rate of delivery (lean component, variable interval 45 s). The persistence of lever pressing in the presence of each stimulus was then assessed during extinction. The results from baseline showed that response rates in rats in both groups were higher in the rich component than in the lean component, but ISO rats responded significantly more than INT rats in both components. The persistence of responding during extinction in ISO rats in both components was also higher than that in INT rats. The results show that effects of ISO are not restricted to alcohol consumption, but also affect persistence of alcohol-seeking behavior, which may reflect differences in the value of drug-related stimuli.

Sugar withdrawal and differential reinforcement of low rate (DRL) performance in rats.

Sugar consumption is assumed to induce a behavioral state that is similar to the one provoked by addictive substances. Drug withdrawal increases impulsivity, assessed by differential reinforcement of low rate (DRL) performance. The present study investigated the effect of withdrawal from a prolonged period of sugar consumption on DRL performance. Water-deprived rats were trained under a DRL 20s (DRL 20) schedule. The animals were allowed to choose between plain water and a sucrose solution (E group) or water only (C group) for 30 days. The sucrose solution was then removed, and measures of DRL 20 performance were obtained on 3 consecutive days. Results showed that DRL performance in the C group improved after sugar withdrawal, whereas performance in the E group led to the loss of reinforcers. An analysis of variance-type analysis showed that the E group had higher response rates per reinforcer, lower IRTs, and greater differences between baseline and abstinence than the C group after 3 days of sugar withdrawal. Thus, sugar abstinence after a relatively long consumption period resulted in impairment of DRL performance, confirming the parallel effects of addictive drugs and sugar and suggesting an increase in impulsivity as a consequence of sugar deprivation.

Efeito do lítio sobre a hiperatividade locomotora induzida pela lesão eletrolítica da região do núcleo mediano da rafe em ratos / Effect of lithium treatment on the locomotor hyperactivity induced by the lesion of the region of the median raphe nucleus in rats

A lesão do núcleo mediano da rafe (NMR) produz sintomas que sugerem validade de face ao episódio maníaco. Esta pesquisa avaliou o efeito do lítio sobre a hiperatividade locomotora induzida por esta lesão. Vinte e um ratos Wistar machos foram submetidos à lesão eletrolítica da região do NMR (LR) e 17 foram submetidos à lesão fictícia (LF). Após recuperação, a atividade locomotora foi avaliada na caixa de atividade (Med Associates/ENV-515). Parte dos animais destes grupos recebeu tratamentos com lítio (47,5 mg/kg/2x dia i.p.) por 10 dias, enquanto o restante foi tratado com salina no mesmo esquema. A reavaliação ao final dos tratamentos demonstrou que o lítio reduziu significantemente a atividade locomotora em relação à avaliação inicial no grupo LR (ANOVA/Bonferroni p < 0,05), tornando-a equivalente aos baixos níveis dos grupos LF. Estes dados sustentam a hipótese de que as manifestações induzidas pela lesão do NMR podem constituir um modelo animal de mania.(AU)

The lesion of the Median Raphe Nucleus (MRN) produces symptoms that suggest face validity for manic episodes. This research evaluated the effect of lithium treatment on the locomotor hyperactivity induced by this lesion. Twenty-one Wistar male rats were submitted to the lesion of the region of the MRN (LR) and 17 were sham lesioned (LF). After recovery, the locomotor activity was evaluated in an activity chamber (Med Associates/ENV-515). A subgroup received lithium (47.5 mg/kg/twice a day i.p.) for 10 days, while the other animals received saline in the same schedule. The reevaluation at the end of the treatments showed that only lithium significantly reduced the activity of LR group compared to baseline levels (ANOVA/Bonferroni p < 0.05), making it equivalent to low levels of LF groups. These data support the hypothesis that the behavioral manifestations induced by the lesion of the MRN may constitute an animal model of mania.(AU)

Efeito do lítio sobre a hiperatividade locomotora induzida pela lesão eletrolítica da região do núcleo mediano da rafe em ratos / Effect of lithium treatment on the locomotor hyperactivity induced by the lesion of the region of the median raphe nucleus in rats

A lesão do núcleo mediano da rafe (NMR) produz sintomas que sugerem validade de face ao episódio maníaco. Esta pesquisa avaliou o efeito do lítio sobre a hiperatividade locomotora induzida por esta lesão. Vinte e um ratos Wistar machos foram submetidos à lesão eletrolítica da região do NMR (LR) e 17 foram submetidos à lesão fictícia (LF). Após recuperação, a atividade locomotora foi avaliada na caixa de atividade (Med Associates/ENV-515). Parte dos animais destes grupos recebeu tratamentos com lítio (47,5 mg/kg/2x dia i.p.) por 10 dias, enquanto o restante foi tratado com salina no mesmo esquema. A reavaliação ao final dos tratamentos demonstrou que o lítio reduziu significantemente a atividade locomotora em relação à avaliação inicial no grupo LR (ANOVA/Bonferroni p < 0,05), tornando-a equivalente aos baixos níveis dos grupos LF. Estes dados sustentam a hipótese de que as manifestações induzidas pela lesão do NMR podem constituir um modelo animal de mania.

The lesion of the Median Raphe Nucleus (MRN) produces symptoms that suggest face validity for manic episodes. This research evaluated the effect of lithium treatment on the locomotor hyperactivity induced by this lesion. Twenty-one Wistar male rats were submitted to the lesion of the region of the MRN (LR) and 17 were sham lesioned (LF). After recovery, the locomotor activity was evaluated in an activity chamber (Med Associates/ENV-515). A subgroup received lithium (47.5 mg/kg/twice a day i.p.) for 10 days, while the other animals received saline in the same schedule. The reevaluation at the end of the treatments showed that only lithium significantly reduced the activity of LR group compared to baseline levels (ANOVA/Bonferroni p < 0.05), making it equivalent to low levels of LF groups. These data support the hypothesis that the behavioral manifestations induced by the lesion of the MRN may constitute an animal model of mania.

Indatraline: synthesis and effect on the motor activity of Wistar rats.

A new approach for the synthesis of indatraline was developed using as the key step an iodine(III)-mediated ring contraction of a 1,2-dihydronaphthalene derivative. Behavioral tests were conducted to evaluate the effect of indatraline and of its precursor indanamide on the motor activity of Wistar rats. Specific indexes for ambulation, raising and stereotypy were computed one, two and three hours after i.p. drug administration. Indatraline effects on motor activity lasted for at least three hours. On the other hand, no significant differences in motor activity were observed using indanamide. The results suggest that indatraline has a long lasting effect on motor activity and add evidence in favor of the potential use of that compound as a substitute in cocaine addiction.

Fundamentos metodológicos da pesquisa em análise experimental do comportamento / Methodological principles of research in experimental analysis of behavior

O método de pesquisa tendo o sujeito como seu próprio controle é uma das marcas da Análise Experimental do Comportamento. Os modos como o analista do comportamento formula perguntas, mensura comportamentos, realiza comparações experimentais, analisa dados e deriva conclusões são relativamente distintos dos métodos praticados em outros campos da Psicologia. O objetivo deste trabalho é apresentar introdutoriamente as principais características desse modo peculiar de investigação científica, explicitando as relações que suas estratégias e táticas mantêm com um conjunto de concepções filosófico-conceituais acerca da natureza de seu objeto de estudo, ou seja, o comportamento dos organismos.(AU)

The research method that applies single-subject designs is a hallmark in the Experimental Analysis of Behavior. The ways behavior analysts state their questions, measure behavior, perform experimental comparisons, analyze data and derive conclusions are relatively distinct from the methods applied in other fields of Psychology. The goal of the current paper is to summarize the main features of this peculiar strategy of scientific research, as well as to make explicit the relationships that their strategies and tactics maintain with a set of theoretical conceptions regarding the nature of its object of investigation, that is, the behavior of the organisms.(AU)

Fundamentos metodológicos da pesquisa em análise experimental do comportamento / Methodological principles of research in experimental analysis of behavior

O método de pesquisa tendo o sujeito como seu próprio controle é uma das marcas da Análise Experimental do Comportamento. Os modos como o analista do comportamento formula perguntas, mensura comportamentos, realiza comparações experimentais, analisa dados e deriva conclusões são relativamente distintos dos métodos praticados em outros campos da Psicologia. O objetivo deste trabalho é apresentar introdutoriamente as principais características desse modo peculiar de investigação científica, explicitando as relações que suas estratégias e táticas mantêm com um conjunto de concepções filosófico-conceituais acerca da natureza de seu objeto de estudo, ou seja, o comportamento dos organismos.

The research method that applies single-subject designs is a hallmark in the Experimental Analysis of Behavior. The ways behavior analysts state their questions, measure behavior, perform experimental comparisons, analyze data and derive conclusions are relatively distinct from the methods applied in other fields of Psychology. The goal of the current paper is to summarize the main features of this peculiar strategy of scientific research, as well as to make explicit the relationships that their strategies and tactics maintain with a set of theoretical conceptions regarding the nature of its object of investigation, that is, the behavior of the organisms.

Patterns of ecstasy use and associated harm: results of a Brazilian online survey.

The aim of this study was to gather information about ecstasy users in Brazil, particularly on issues related to risks associated to the use of the drug, so as to offer a basis to prevention projects. A total of 1,140 Brazilian ecstasy users answered an online questionnaire from August 2004 to February 2005. Participants were predominantly young single heterosexual well-educated males from upper economical classes. A categorical regression with optimal scaling (CATREG) was performed to identify the risks associated with ecstasy use. "Pills taken in life" had a significant correlation with every investigated risk, particularly ecstasy dependence, unsafe sex, and polydrug use. "Gender," "sexual orientation," and "socioeconomic class" were not predictive of risk behavior. The Internet proved to be a useful tool for data collection. Given the recent increase in ecstasy availability in Brazil, a first prevention campaign directed toward the drug is urgent. At least in a preliminary Brazilian intervention, the campaign must be conducted at night leisure places, mainly frequented by youngsters from upper socioeconomic classes. The results do not call for information material with specific targets, such as gender or sexual orientation. The study's limitations have been noted.

Diethylpropion produces psychostimulant and reward effects.

Diethylpropion (DEP) is a stimulant drug widely used for weight control in Brazil and other American countries. However, its effects on behavior and addiction potential are not yet well known. Data suggest that sensitization resulting from pre-exposure to psychostimulants could be a possible risk factor in subsequent drug addiction. The purpose of this investigation was to verify whether pre-exposure to DEP would sensitize rats to the motor activating effect and to the rewarding value of DEP. Two experiments were conducted. In both experiments rats were pre-exposed to DEP (20 mg/kg) or vehicle for 7 consecutive days. The acute effect of DEP (0.0, 1.0, 2.5 or 5.0 mg/kg) on motor activity (Experiment 1) and induction of Conditioned Place Preference-CPP (Experiment 2) were then measured. Results from Experiment 1 showed that 2.5 and 5.0 mg/kg DEP increased motor activity. Sensitization of this motor effect was observed. In Experiment 2, the doses of 2.5 and 5.0 mg/kg DEP induced CPP, indicating their rewarding value. However, no sensitization effect was observed. The results suggest that DEP at low doses has psychostimulant and rewarding properties. It is recommended that more effort should be dedicated to elucidating DEP abuse potential.

Relationship between ethanol and sucrose self-administration and schedule-induced polydipsia.

Studies have suggested a relationship between drug abuse and compulsive behaviors. The present experiments investigated the relationship between schedule-induced polydipsia (SIP) and self-administration (SA) of ethanol and sucrose. SIP served as a model of compulsive behavior, and oral self-administration on a progressive-ratio (PR) schedule of reinforcement assessed the reinforcing value of either a 10% ethanol solution or an isocaloric sucrose solution. Rats first were exposed to PR sessions in which break points were the dependent variable and then switched to SIP sessions, with number of licks as the dependent variable. Results showed a positive relationship between PR and SIP for sucrose but not for ethanol: higher and lower PRs for sucrose were associated with higher and lower SIP levels. The order of the sessions then was reversed, such that SIP sessions were run before PR sessions. An opposite relationship was observed in which high and low SIP animals exhibited low and high PR break points, respectively. The relationship between SIP and SA was dependent on the reinforcing value of the substance and on prior SIP exposure. These results may reflect a common dopaminergic substrate and suggest that prior experience in coping with stress may reduce vulnerability to substance abuse behavior.

Neural events in the reinforcement contingency.

When neural events are analyzed as stimuli and responses, functional relations among them and among overt stimuli and responses can be unveiled. The integration of neuroscience and the experimental analysis of behavior is beginning to provide empirical evidence of involvement of neural events in the three-term contingency relating discriminative stimuli, responses, and consequences. This paper is aimed at highlighting exemplar instances in the development of this issue. It has long been known that the electrical stimulation of certain cerebral areas can have a reinforcing function. Extraordinary technological advances in recent years show that neural activity can be selected by consequences. For example, the activity of in vitro isolated neurons that receive dopamine as a reinforcer functions as a cellular analogue of operant conditioning. The in vivo activity of populations of neurons of rats and monkeys can be recorded on an instant-to-instant basis and can then be used to move mechanical arms or track a target as a function of consequences. Neural stimulation acts as a discriminative stimulus for operant responses that are in turn maintained by neural consequences. Together with investigations on the molecular basis of classical conditioning, those studies are examples of possibilities that are being created for the study of behavior-environment interactions within the organism. More important, they show that, as an element in the three-term contingency, neural activity follows the same laws as other events.

Dependência de drogas / Drug dependence

O texto discute três teorias atuais de dependência de drogas: a Teoria Comportamental da dependência como escolha de Heyman, a Teoria da Sensibilização do incentivo de Robinson e Berridge, e a Teoria Neurobiológica da dependência como escolha, de Kalivas. Todas concordam em caracterizar a dependência como resultante de processos de aprendizagem em que droga e estímulos associados a seus efeitos adquirem controle potente sobre o comportamento. Diferenciam-se quanto aos processos de aprendizagem envolvidos. A Teoria Comportamental enfatiza componentes operantes e sustenta que o consumo repetido de drogas diminui o valor reforçador de atividades concorrentes. A Teoria da Sensibilização enfatiza componentes respondentes, propondo a dependência como resultado da sensibilização da potência eliciadora de estímulos condicionados aos efeitos da droga. A Teoria Neurobiológica integra as duas primeiras, descrevendo as mudanças no circuito do reforço que acontecem no processo de dependência (AU)

Dependência de drogas / Drug dependence

O texto discute três teorias atuais de dependência de drogas: a Teoria Comportamental da dependência como escolha de Heyman, a Teoria da Sensibilização do incentivo de Robinson e Berridge, e a Teoria Neurobiológica da dependência como escolha, de Kalivas. Todas concordam em caracterizar a dependência como resultante de processos de aprendizagem em que droga e estímulos associados a seus efeitos adquirem controle potente sobre o comportamento. Diferenciam-se quanto aos processos de aprendizagem envolvidos. A Teoria Comportamental enfatiza componentes operantes e sustenta que o consumo repetido de drogas diminui o valor reforçador de atividades concorrentes. A Teoria da Sensibilização enfatiza componentes respondentes, propondo a dependência como resultado da sensibilização da potência eliciadora de estímulos condicionados aos efeitos da droga. A Teoria Neurobiológica integra as duas primeiras, descrevendo as mudanças no circuito do reforço que acontecem no processo de dependência

Efeito da pré-exposição a dietilpropiona e a cafeína sobre o valor reforçador da dietilpropiona / Effect of pre-exposure to diethylpropione or caffeine on the reinforcing value of diethylpropione

A literatura recente sobre drogadicção trata a sensibilização produzida pela pré-exposição a estimulantes como um possível fator na aquisição, manutenção e recaída na dependência gerada por essas drogas. O objetivo desse trabalho foi verificar se a pré-exposição a dietilpropiona (DEP) e cafeína (CAF) sensibilizava ratos ao efeito reforçador da DEP. Quatro experimentos foram realizados. No Experimento 1 um grupo de ratos foi pré-exposto i.p. a DEP. enquanto outro grupo de ratos recebia veículo. Posteriormente foi medido o efeito agudo i.p. de três doses de DEP (1,0. 2,5 e 5,0 mg/kg) sobre a atividade motora. No Experimento 2, o procedimento de pré-exposição foi similar ao descrito para o Experimento 1. Posteriormente, foi medida a preferência condicionada de lugar (CPP) produzida por três doses de DEP (1,0, 2,5 e 5,0 mg/kg). O Experimento 3 constou de duas partes. Na primeira parte, ratos adultos foram pré-expostos a CAF i.p., enquanto que outro grupo recebia veículo. Posteriormente foi medida a CPP induzida por 2,5 mg/kg de DEP. Na segunda parte desse experimento, ratos adolescentes foram pré-expostos oralmente a CAF por 56 dias consecutivos, enquanto que outro grupo...(AU)

Efeito da administração aguda e repetida de fencanfamina sobre o valor reforçador do estímulo

A fencanfamina (FCF) é um antagonista indireto do sistema dopaminérgico que tem efeitos neurais e comportamentais similares aos observados com outras drogas estimulantes como a anfetamina ou a cocaína (COC). O presente trabalho teve como objetivo avaliar o efeito da administração aguda e repetida de FCF sobre o valor reforçador dos estímulos (Re). Foi usada a equação de igualação proposta por Hermstein (1970) para avaliar esse efeito motivacional. Foi também medido o efeito dessa droga sobre a taxa de respostas e a capacidade motora (k). Três experimentos foram realizados. Nos três experimentos o efeito da FCF foi testado em ratos treinados em um esquema múltiplo de sete componentes de diferentes Vis. Nos Experimentos l e 2 (El e E2, respectivamennte) três doses agudas de FCF (0,88 mg/kg, 1,75 mg/kg e 3,5 mg/kg) foram administradas i p. No E l o reforçador foi água e no E2 reforçador foi sacarose. Em ambos os experimentos, o efeito da droga sobre os parâmetrosestudados foi semelhante: três doses de FCF aumentaram a taxa de respostas e diminuíram Re sem alterar k. No Experimento 3, seis injeções de veiculo (Grupo VEI) ou de 1,75 mg/kg de FCF (Grupo DROGA) foram administradas i p intermitentemente aos sujeitos a fim de promover sensibilização comportamental. Após sete dias de suspensão da droga, foi administrada uma dose de 0,88 mg/kg de FCF em animais de ambos os grupos e foi medido o efeito sobre a taxa de respostas, k e Re. Os resultados obtidos mostraram que a administração repetida de FCF não alterou o efeito dessa droga sobre os parâmetros estudados. Os resultados são consistentes com os dados que mostram que a FCF tem efeitos sobre o comportamento similares aos de outros estimulantes, e apóiam a hipótese de que o aumento da taxa de respostas observado após a administração da FCF está relacionado a mudanças no valor reforçados dos estímulos, o que sugere um efeito motivacional e não motor. Além disso, os...(AU)