Use of vaccines and factors associated with their uptake variability in dogs, cats and rabbits attending a large sentinel network of veterinary practices across Great Britain.

Vaccination remains a mainstay of companion animal population health. However, how vaccine use at a population level complies with existing guidelines is unknown. Here we use electronic health records to describe vaccination in dogs, cats and rabbits attending a large sentinel network of UK veterinary practices. In total, 77.9% (95% CI: 77.6-78.1) of animals had recorded vaccinations. The percentage of animals with recorded vaccinations was higher in dogs, neutered animals, in insured dogs and cats and in purebred dogs. Vaccination rates varied in different regions of Great Britain in all species. Dogs and cats belonging to owners living in less deprived areas of England and Scotland were more likely to be recorded as vaccinated. In the vaccinated population, cats received more core vaccines per year of life (0.86) than dogs (0.75), with feline leukaemia vaccines almost as frequent as core vaccines. In dogs, leptospira vaccines were more frequent than core vaccines. This descriptive study suggests a substantial proportion of animals are not benefiting from vaccine protection. For the first time, we identify potential factors associated with variations in recorded vaccination frequency, providing a critical baseline against which to monitor future changes in companion animal vaccination and evidence to inform future targeted health interventions.

The association between dog ownership or dog walking and fitness or weight status in childhood.

BACKGROUND: Health benefits of dog walking are established in adults: dog owners are on average more physically active, and those walking their dogs regularly have lower weight status than those who do not. However, there has been little research on children. OBJECTIVES: This study aimed to examine the association between dog ownership or dog walking and childhood fitness or weight status. METHODS: A survey of pet ownership and involvement in dog walking was combined with fitness and weight status measurements of 1021 9 to 10-year-old children in the Liverpool SportsLinx study. RESULTS: We found little evidence to support that children who live with, or walk with, dogs are any fitter or less likely to be obese than those who do not. CONCLUSIONS: This is an important finding, as it suggests that the activity that children currently do with dogs is not sufficient enough to impact weight status or fitness.

Surveillance of diarrhoea in small animal practice through the Small Animal Veterinary Surveillance Network (SAVSNET).

Using the Small Animal Veterinary Surveillance Network (SAVSNET), a national small animal disease-surveillance scheme, information on gastrointestinal disease was collected for a total of 76 days between 10 May 2010 and 8 August 2011 from 16,223 consultations (including data from 9115 individual dogs and 3462 individual cats) from 42 premises belonging to 19 UK veterinary practices. During that period, 7% of dogs and 3% of cats presented with diarrhoea. Adult dogs had a higher proportional morbidity of diarrhoea (PMD) than adult cats (P <0.001). This difference was not observed in animals <1 year old. Younger animals in both species had higher PMDs than adult animals (P < 0.001). Neutering was associated with reduced PMD in young male dogs. In adult dogs, miniature Schnauzers had the highest PMD. Most animals with diarrhoea (51%) presented having been ill for 2-4 days, but a history of vomiting or haemorrhagic diarrhoea was associated with a shorter time to presentation. The most common treatments employed were dietary modification (66% of dogs; 63% of cats) and antibacterials (63% of dogs; 49% of cats). There was variability in PMD between different practices. The SAVNET methodology facilitates rapid collection of cross-sectional data regarding diarrhoea, a recognised sentinel for infectious disease, and characterises data that could benchmark clinical practice and support the development of evidence-based medicine.

Phylogeny and prevalence of kobuviruses in dogs and cats in the UK.

The kobuviruses represent an emerging genus in the Picornaviridae. Here we have used next generation sequencing and conventional approaches to identify the first canine kobuvirus (CaKoV) from outside the USA. Phylogenetic analysis suggests that a single lineage genotype of CaKoV now exists in Europe and the USA with 94% nucleotide similarity in the coding region. CaKoV was only identified in a single case from a case-control study of canine diarrhoea, suggesting this virus was not a frequent cause of disease in this population. Attempts to grow CaKoV in cell culture failed. Sequence analysis suggested CaKoV was distinct from human Aichi virus (AiV), and unlikely to pose a significant zoonotic risk. Serosurveys by ELISA, immunofluorescence and neutralisation tests, using AiV as antigen, suggested kobuvirus infection is prevalent in dogs. In addition, IgG antibody to AiV was also detected in cat sera, indicating for the first time that cats may also be susceptible to kobuvirus infection.

Canine parvovirus in asymptomatic feline carriers.

Canine parvovirus (CPV) and feline panleukopaenia virus (FPLV) are two closely related viruses, which are known to cause severe disease in younger unvaccinated animals. As well as causing disease in their respective hosts, CPV has recently acquired the feline host range, allowing it to infect both cats and dogs. As well as causing disease in dogs, there is evidence that under some circumstances CPV may also cause disease in cats. This study has investigated the prevalence of parvoviruses in the faeces of clinically healthy cats and dogs in two rescue shelters. Canine parvovirus was demonstrated in 32.5% (13/50) of faecal samples in a cross sectional study of 50 cats from a feline only shelter, and 33.9% (61/180) of faecal samples in a longitudinal study of 74 cats at a mixed canine and feline shelter. Virus was isolated in cell cultures of both canine and feline origin from all PCR-positive samples suggesting they contained viable, infectious virus. In contrast to the high CPV prevalence in cats, no FPLV was found, and none of 122 faecal samples from dogs, or 160 samples collected from the kennel environment, tested positive for parvovirus by PCR. Sequence analysis of major capsid VP2 gene from all positive samples, as well as the non-structural gene from 18 randomly selected positive samples, showed that all positive cats were shedding CPV2a or 2b, rather than FPLV. Longitudinally sampling in one shelter showed that all cats appeared to shed the same virus sequence type at each date they were positive (up to six weeks), despite a lack of clinical signs. Fifty percent of the sequences obtained here were shown to be similar to those recently obtained in a study of sick dogs in the UK (Clegg et al., 2011). These results suggest that in some circumstances, clinically normal cats may be able to shed CPV for prolonged periods of time, and raises the possibility that such cats may be important reservoirs for the maintenance of infection in both the cat and the dog population.

Multilocus sequence typing of human and canine C. upsaliensis isolates.

Risk of Campylobacter infection in humans has been associated with many sources, including dogs. C. upsaliensis is the most common species found in canines, and has been occasionally isolated from symptomatic humans. This study aimed to investigate the genetic diversity of 41 C. upsaliensis isolates carried by dogs and from nine isolates carried by humans using Multilocus sequence typing (MLST). We identified considerable genetic diversity amongst the C. upsaliensis isolates from both dogs and humans, identifying 45 different sequence types (STs). All STs were new, apart from that of the reference strain. Only three STs were found in more than one isolate: ST-72 (2 isolates), ST-98 (2 isolates) and ST-104 (3 isolates). ST-104 was the only ST to be encountered in both dogs and humans. Thirty-one of the 45 STs were assigned to one of 13 clonal complexes (CCs). Four of these CCs contained STs originating from both humans and dogs. None of the CCs contained exclusively human isolates, and two isolates from dogs within the same kennel belonged to the same CC. The large amount of diversity found in both dog and human isolates of C. upsaliensis, combined with the relatively small database, made it difficult to assign strains to sources of infection. This emphasizes the need to increase the size of the database. Dog and human isolates occasionally grouped together, however there were insufficient human-derived isolates to determine whether or not dogs are a common source of infection. Although C. upsaliensis infection is rare in humans, dogs still remain a potential source, and are therefore a possible zoonotic risk. Further work is needed to investigate the epidemiology of C. upsaliensis infection in humans.

Antibacterial prescribing patterns in small animal veterinary practice identified via SAVSNET: the small animal veterinary surveillance network.

In this study, data from veterinary clinical records were collected via the small animal veterinary surveillance network (SAVSNET). Over a three-month period, data were obtained from 22,859 consultations at 16 small animal practices in England and Wales: 69 per cent from dogs, 24 per cent from cats, 3 per cent from rabbits and 4 per cent from miscellaneous species. The proportion of consults where prescribing of antibacterials was identified was 35.1 per cent for dogs, 48.5 per cent for cats and 36.6 per cent for rabbits. Within this population, 76 per cent of antibacterials prescribed were ß-lactams, including the most common group of clavulanic acid-potentiated amoxicillin making up 36 per cent of the antibacterials prescribed. Other classes included lincosamides (9 per cent), fluoroquinolones and quinolones (6 per cent) and nitroimidazoles (4 per cent). Vancomycin and teicoplanin (glycopeptide class), and imipenem and meropenem (ß-lactam class) prescribing was not identified. Prescribing behaviour varied between practices. For dogs and cats, the proportion of consults associated with the prescription of antibacterials ranged from 0.26 to 0.55 and 0.41 to 0.73, respectively.

Molecular epidemiology and phylogeny reveal complex spatial dynamics in areas where canine parvovirus is endemic.

Canine parvovirus type 2 (CPV-2) is a severe enteric pathogen of dogs, causing high mortality in unvaccinated dogs. After emerging, CPV-2 spread rapidly worldwide. However, there is now some evidence to suggest that international transmission appears to be more restricted. In order to investigate the transmission and evolution of CPV-2 both nationally and in relation to the global situation, we have used a long-range PCR to amplify and sequence the full VP2 gene of 150 canine parvoviruses obtained from a large cross-sectional sample of dogs presenting with severe diarrhea to veterinarians in the United Kingdom, over a 2-year period. Among these 150 strains, 50 different DNA sequence types (S) were identified, and apart from one case, all appeared unique to the United Kingdom. Phylogenetic analysis provided clear evidence for spatial clustering at the international level and for the first time also at the national level, with the geographical range of some sequence types appearing to be highly restricted within the United Kingdom. Evolution of the VP2 gene in this data set was associated with a lack of positive selection. In addition, the majority of predicted amino acid sequences were identical to those found elsewhere in the world, suggesting that CPV VP2 has evolved a highly fit conformation. Based on typing systems using key amino acid mutations, 43% of viruses were CPV-2a, and 57% CPV-2b, with no type 2 or 2c found. However, phylogenetic analysis suggested complex antigenic evolution of this virus, with both type 2a and 2b viruses appearing polyphyletic. As such, typing based on specific amino acid mutations may not reflect the true epidemiology of this virus. The geographical restriction that we observed both within the United Kingdom and between the United Kingdom and other countries, together with the lack of CPV-2c in this population, strongly suggests the spread of CPV within its population may be heterogeneously subject to limiting factors. This cross-sectional study of national and global CPV phylogeographic segregation reveals a substantially more complex epidemic structure than previously described.

Prevalence and shedding patterns of Campylobacter spp. in longitudinal studies of kennelled dogs.

Dog ownership is considered a risk factor for campylobacteriosis in humans. This study investigated the prevalence and shedding of Campylobacter spp. in kennelled dogs. Faecal samples (n=399) were collected in longitudinal studies from 52 dogs in two kennels. Campylobacter spp. were isolated using charcoal-based selective agars and direct PCR. The prevalence of Campylobacter spp. in dogs in boarding kennels ranged from 46% (95% CI 22, 72) on entry, to 50% (95% CI 30, 70) overall, and in dogs in 'rescue' kennels from 68% (95% CI 49, 84) on entry to 73% (95%, CI 56, 87) overall. C. upsaliensis was isolated from 62% (95% CI 48, 73) of the dogs, whilst C. jejuni was isolated from 15% (95% CI 7, 26) of animals. The majority of infected dogs entered the kennels already carrying Campylobacter spp., and remained infected throughout their stay. However, in some cases, shedding appeared to commence after kennelling. Given that the prevalence of C. upsaliensis and C. jejuni was relatively high in dogs from both boarding and rescue kennels, such animals may pose a zoonotic risk.

Factors associated with cat ownership in a community in the UK.

A census-based epidemiological study was carried out to investigate factors associated with cat ownership in a semi-rural community of 1278 households in Cheshire, UK. Twenty-two per cent of the households were identified as cat-owning and 52 per cent owned a pet of any type. There was evidence to suggest that some types of household were more likely to own a cat than others. Multivariable logistic regression indicated that households were less likely to own a cat if they had one dog compared with no dog, but were more likely to have a cat if they also owned a horse. There was strong evidence that the composition of members of the household was also associated with cat ownership. Households that included people over 60 years old were less likely to own a cat. Households that consisted only of male adults were less likely to own a cat when compared with mixed-sex households. Conversely, households consisting only of female adults were more likely to own a cat.

Prevalence of canine enteric coronavirus in a cross-sectional survey of dogs presenting at veterinary practices.

In order to determine the prevalence of canine enteric coronavirus (CECoV) in the general dog population, faecal samples were obtained in a cross-sectional study of 249 dogs presenting for any reason at veterinary practices randomly selected from across the UK. Demographic and clinical data was obtained for each of the samples, including signalment, number of dogs in the household, reason for visiting the practice, and any recent history of diarrhoea. The samples were tested by RT-PCR for the presence of both type I and type II CECoV. Seven samples were positive (three from dogs in the same household), a prevalence of 2.8% (95% confidence intervals 1.1-5.7). Phylogenetic analysis of partial M gene sequences revealed that all seven positive samples grouped with type I CECoV, the first report of this virus in the UK. None of the positive dogs presented for gastrointestinal disease. Interestingly five of the positive dogs from three separate households were aged over 6 years, suggesting that older dogs may play an important role in the persistence of CECoV in such populations.

Prevalence of Campylobacter spp. in a cross-sectional study of dogs attending veterinary practices in the UK and risk indicators associated with shedding.

Campylobacteriosis is a major cause of gastroenteritis in humans and some studies have suggested that dog ownership is a risk factor for the condition. To determine the prevalence, species distribution, and risk indicators for Campylobacter spp. infecting dogs attending veterinary practices in UK, faecal samples were collected in a cross-sectional study from 249 dogs with and without clinical signs. The prevalence of Campylobacter spp. was 38% (95% CI 32, 44), with Campylobacter upsaliensis accounting for 94 (98%) of the isolates and Campylobacter jejuni for the remainder. Multivariable analysis indicated that younger dogs were more likely to carry C. upsaliensis and the high prevalence of this pathogen supports the hypothesis that dogs, particularly younger animals, may be an important source of C. upsaliensis infection for humans. However the prevalence of C. jejuni, the most common Campylobacter spp. associated with disease in humans, was low (1.2%, 95% CI 0.3, 3).

Risk factors for the carriage of Campylobacter upsaliensis by dogs in a community in Cheshire.

Samples of faeces were taken from 183 healthy pet dogs in a census-based, cross-sectional study in Cheshire; culture methods were used to detect any Campylobacter species and a direct PCR was used to detect Campylobacter upsaliensis. Forty-six of the dogs were positive for C upsaliensis by either culture or direct PCR, giving a prevalence of 25.1 per cent (95 per cent confidence interval [CI] 19.0 to 32.1 per cent). One sample was positive by culture for Campylobacter jejuni (95 per cent CI 0.0 to 3.0 per cent) and one for Campylobacter lari. Multivariable logistic regression identified risk factors for the carriage of C upsaliensis by a dog as: living with another dog that also carried C upsaliensis; being small rather than medium-sized; being less than three years old; living in a household that kept fish; being fed commercial dog treats; and being fed human food titbits, particularly in the dog's bowl.

Typing of Campylobacter jejuni isolates from dogs by use of multilocus sequence typing and pulsed-field gel electrophoresis.

Campylobacter is a major cause of human gastroenteritis worldwide. Risk of Campylobacter infection in humans has been associated with many sources, including dogs. This study aimed to investigate whether C. jejuni carried by dogs could potentially be a zoonotic risk for humans and if there were common sources of C. jejuni infection for both humans and dogs. Multilocus sequence typing (MLST) together with macrorestriction analysis of genomic DNA using SmaI and pulsed-field gel electrophoresis (PFGE) were both used to analyze 33 C. jejuni isolates obtained from various dog populations, including those visiting veterinary practices and from different types of kennels. MLST data suggested that there was a large amount of genetic diversity between dog isolates and that the majority of sequence types found in isolates from these dogs were the same as those found in isolates from humans. The main exception was ST-2772, which was isolated from four samples and could not be assigned to a clonal complex. The most commonly identified clonal complex was ST-45 (11 isolates), followed by ST-21 (4 isolates), ST-508 (4 isolates), and ST-403 (3 isolates). The profiles obtained by macrorestriction PFGE were largely in concordance with the MLST results, with a similar amount of genetic diversity found. The diversity of sequence types found within dogs suggests they are exposed to various sources of C. jejuni infection. The similarity of these sequence types to C. jejuni isolates from humans suggests there may be common sources of infection for both dogs and humans. Although only a small number of household dogs may carry C. jejuni, infected dogs should still be considered a potential zoonotic risk to humans, particularly if the dogs originate from kennelled or hunt kennel dog populations, where the prevalence may be higher.

Walking the dog: exploration of the contact networks between dogs in a community.

This study uses social network analysis to investigate potential contact among 214 dog-owning households in a UK community through their utilization of public space during walking. We identified a high level of potential contact between dog-owning households; most households walked their dogs in only a few areas but a small number visited many. Highly connected households were more likely to have multiple dogs, walk their dogs off lead, and own Working, Pastoral or some Terrier types. Similarly, most areas were only visited by a few households but a few were visited by many. Despite identification of subgroups of households and locations, we demonstrated high connectivity between dog-owning households, with minimum path lengths of two 'steps' (household-area-household, 74%) or four 'steps' (via two areas, 26%).

Risk factors for time to diagnosis of feline upper respiratory tract disease in UK animal adoption shelters.

Feline upper respiratory tract disease (URTD), mainly caused by feline calicivirus (FCV) and feline herpesvirus, is a major cause of disease outbreaks in feline accommodation such as animal shelters, catteries and multi-cat households. We conducted a longitudinal, yearlong study in five UK feline animal shelters to identify risk factors for the time to diagnosis of URTD. We were especially interested in risk factors that could be identified at the time the cat entered the shelter. Shelter staff recorded data for 1,434 cats during 2002-2003. Most of the cats were domestic shorthair cats and were from private households, or were stray or abandoned. Sixty cats without clinical signs of URTD at entry had URTD diagnosed (typically within the first month at the centre). We used two multivariable models: one was a Cox proportional-hazards model, and the other a regression analyses with complementary log-log model. The hazard varied substantially between shelters and was considerably lower for the shelter that had a purpose-built admissions unit with its own isolation facilities. The hazard was greater for purebred cats (HR 4.3-5.0) and for neutered cats (HR 2.0). The hazard was also typically greater if the centre had a greater proportion of cats present with URTD. The analyses suggested that the centre-level risk factors were more important in determining hazard than cat-level risk factors.

Dog-human and dog-dog interactions of 260 dog-owning households in a community in Cheshire.

This study investigated the nature and frequency of the contacts that occur between dogs, and between dogs and people, by means of a questionnaire survey of 260 dog-owning households in a community in Cheshire, uk. The contacts were highly variable and were affected by the size, sex and age of the dog, individual dog behaviours, human behaviours and human preferences in the management of the dog. A number of situations were identified that may be important in relation to zoonoses, including sleeping areas, playing behaviours, greeting behaviours, food sources, walking, disposal of faeces, veterinary preventive treatment and general hygiene.

Lethal outbreak of disease associated with feline calicivirus infection in cats.

Recently, in the USA, virulent mutants of feline calicivirus (FCV) have been identified as the cause of a severe and acute virulent systemic disease, characterised by jaundice, oedema and high mortality in groups of cats. This severe manifestation of FCV disease has so far only been reported in the USA. However, in 2003, an outbreak of disease affected a household of four adult cats and an adult cat from a neighbouring household in the UK. Three of the adult cats in the household and the neighbouring cat developed clinical signs including pyrexia (39.5 to 40.5 degrees C), lameness, voice loss, inappetence and jaundice. One cat was euthanased in extremis, two died and one recovered. A postmortem examination of one of the cats revealed focal cellulitis around the right hock and right elbow joints. The principal finding of histopathological examinations of selected organs from two of the cats was disseminated hepatocellular necrosis with mild inflammatory infiltration. Immunohistology identified FCV antigen in parenchymal and Kupffer cells in the liver of both animals and in alveolar macrophages of one of them. In addition, calicivirus-like particles were observed by electron microscopy within the hepatocytes of one cat. FCV was isolated from two of the dead cats and from the two surviving cats. Sequence analysis showed that they were all infected with the same strain of virus, but that it was different from strains of FCV associated with the virulent systemic disease in cats in the USA. The outbreak was successfully controlled by quarantine in the owner's house.