Regulation of PaRBOH1-mediated ROS production in Norway spruce by Ca2+ binding and phosphorylation.

Plant respiratory burst oxidase homologs (RBOHs) are plasma membrane-localized NADPH oxidases that generate superoxide anion radicals, which then dismutate to H2O2, into the apoplast using cytoplasmic NADPH as an electron donor. PaRBOH1 is the most highly expressed RBOH gene in developing xylem as well as in a lignin-forming cell culture of Norway spruce (Picea abies L. Karst.). Since no previous information about regulation of gymnosperm RBOHs exist, our aim was to resolve how PaRBOH1 is regulated with a focus on phosphorylation. The N-terminal part of PaRBOH1 was found to contain several putative phosphorylation sites and a four-times repeated motif with similarities to the Botrytis-induced kinase 1 target site in Arabidopsis AtRBOHD. Phosphorylation was indicated for six of the sites in in vitro kinase assays using 15 amino-acid-long peptides for each of the predicted phosphotarget site in the presence of protein extracts of developing xylem. Serine and threonine residues showing positive response in the peptide assays were individually mutated to alanine (kinase-inactive) or to aspartate (phosphomimic), and the wild type PaRBOH1 and the mutated constructs transfected to human kidney embryogenic (HEK293T) cells with a low endogenous level of extracellular ROS production. ROS-producing assays with HEK cells showed that Ca2+ and phosphorylation synergistically activate the enzyme and identified several serine and threonine residues that are likely to be phosphorylated including a novel phosphorylation site not characterized in other plant species. These were further investigated with a phosphoproteomic study. Results of Norway spruce, the first gymnosperm species studied in relation to RBOH regulation, show that regulation of RBOH activity is conserved among seed plants.

Faba bean root exudates alter pea root colonization by the oomycete Aphanomyces euteiches at early stages of infection.

Aphanomyces euteiches is an oomycete pathogen that causes the pea root rot. We investigated the potential role of early belowground defense in pea (susceptible plant) and faba bean (tolerant plant) at three days after inoculation. Pea and faba bean were inoculated with A. euteiches zoospores. Root colonization was examined. Root exudates from pea and faba bean were harvested and their impact on A. euteiches development were assessed by using in vitro assays. A. euteiches root colonization and the influence of the oomycete inoculation on specialized metabolites patterns and arabinogalactan protein (AGP) concentration of root exudates were also determined. In faba bean root, A. euteiches colonization was very low as compared with that of pea. Whereas infected pea root exudates have a positive chemotaxis index (CI) on zoospores, faba bean exudate CI was negative suggesting a repellent effect. While furanoacetylenic compounds were only detected in faba bean exudates, AGP concentration was specifically increased in pea.This work showed that early in the course of infection, host susceptibility to A. euteiches is involved via a plant-species specific root exudation opening new perspectives in pea root rot disease management.

Unravelling Chemical Composition of Agave Spines: News from Agave fourcroydes Lem.

Spines are key plant modifications developed to deal against herbivores; however, its physical structure and chemical composition have been little explored in plant species. Here, we took advantage of high-throughput chromatography to characterize chemical composition of Agave fourcroydes Lem. spines, a species traditionally used for fiber extraction. Analyses of structural carbohydrate showed that spines have lower cellulose content than leaf fibers (52 and 72%, respectively) but contain more than 2-fold the hemicellulose and 1.5-fold pectin. Xylose and galacturonic acid were enriched in spines compared to fibers. The total lignin content in spines was 1.5-fold higher than those found in fibers, with elevated levels of syringyl (S) and guaiacyl (G) subunits but similar S/G ratios within tissues. Metabolomic profiling based on accurate mass spectrometry revealed the presence of phenolic compounds including quercetin, kaempferol, (+)-catechin, and (-)-epicatechin in A. fourcroydes spines, which were also detected in situ in spines tissues and could be implicated in the color of these plants' structures. Abundance of (+)-catechins could also explain proanthocyanidins found in spines. Agave spines may become a plant model to obtain more insights about cellulose and lignin interactions and condensed tannin deposition, which is valuable knowledge for the bioenergy industry and development of naturally dyed fibers, respectively.

Bark water storage capacity influences epiphytic orchid preference for host trees.

PREMISE: Of all orchid species described, 70% live on phorophytes. Trees offer a vital space with characteristics that influence the successful establishment and life cycle of orchids. Field inventory and distribution analysis suggest that phorophyte selection is biased to certain tree species that would serve as better hosts. Phorophyte bark is known as an important factor that influences this preference, but the chemical and physical properties of bark that contribute to creating a favorable space for orchids are still poorly understood. In this work, the effect of bark physical characteristics on phorophyte preference of tropical orchids was studied. METHODS: Orchids and their phorophytes were counted and identified along transects inside two natural reserves in Southeast Mexico. A rhytidome classification was used to describe the bark decoration patterns of the phorophytes. To quantify bark fissuring, we developed a new protocol based on image processing of light micrographs using free-access software. Bark topology characterization was complemented with scanning electronic microscopy. Maximum and minimum water content was also determined. RESULTS: Analyses of bark decorations and bark fissuring were not enough to explain the preference found for some tropical trees. In contrast, a positive relationship was found among water-storage capacity, bark porosity, and phorophyte preference. The host trees preferred by most orchids have bark with higher pore density and higher water retention after draining. CONCLUSIONS: Unexpectedly, the phorophytes preferred by orchids are not those with more fissured bark but those with a higher ability to retain minimum water content after draining, which is a bark property positively correlated with higher pore density. Our data indicate that the bark microenvironment, determined by topology and water storage capacity, has a pivotal role in phorophyte specificity, a key factor that affects orchid diversity and distribution in the world.

Recognition of Elicitors in Grapevine: From MAMP and DAMP Perception to Induced Resistance.

In a context of a sustainable viticulture, the implementation of innovative eco-friendly strategies, such as elicitor-triggered immunity, requires a deep knowledge of the molecular mechanisms underlying grapevine defense activation, from pathogen perception to resistance induction. During plant-pathogen interaction, the first step of plant defense activation is ensured by the recognition of microbe-associated molecular patterns, which are elicitors directly derived from pathogenic or beneficial microbes. Vitis vinifera, like other plants, can perceive elicitors of different nature, including proteins, amphiphilic glycolipid, and lipopeptide molecules as well as polysaccharides, thanks to their cognate pattern recognition receptors, the discovery of which recently began in this plant species. Furthermore, damage-associated molecular patterns are another class of elicitors perceived by V. vinifera as an invader's hallmark. They are mainly polysaccharides derived from the plant cell wall and are generally released through the activity of cell wall-degrading enzymes secreted by microbes. Elicitor perception and subsequent activation of grapevine immunity end in some cases in efficient grapevine resistance against pathogens. Using complementary approaches, several molecular markers have been identified as hallmarks of this induced resistance stage. This review thus focuses on the recognition of elicitors by Vitis vinifera describing the molecular mechanisms triggered from the elicitor perception to the activation of immune responses. Finally, we discuss the fact that the link between elicitation and induced resistance is not so obvious and that the formulation of resistance inducers remains a key step before their application in vineyards.

The Receptor-like Pseudokinase GHR1 Is Required for Stomatal Closure.

Guard cells control the aperture of stomatal pores to balance photosynthetic carbon dioxide uptake with evaporative water loss. Stomatal closure is triggered by several stimuli that initiate complex signaling networks to govern the activity of ion channels. Activation of SLOW ANION CHANNEL1 (SLAC1) is central to the process of stomatal closure and requires the leucine-rich repeat receptor-like kinase (LRR-RLK) GUARD CELL HYDROGEN PEROXIDE-RESISTANT1 (GHR1), among other signaling components. Here, based on functional analysis of nine Arabidopsis thaliana ghr1 mutant alleles identified in two independent forward-genetic ozone-sensitivity screens, we found that GHR1 is required for stomatal responses to apoplastic reactive oxygen species, abscisic acid, high CO2 concentrations, and diurnal light/dark transitions. Furthermore, we show that the amino acid residues of GHR1 involved in ATP binding are not required for stomatal closure in Arabidopsis or the activation of SLAC1 anion currents in Xenopus laevis oocytes and present supporting in silico and in vitro evidence suggesting that GHR1 is an inactive pseudokinase. Biochemical analyses suggested that GHR1-mediated activation of SLAC1 occurs via interacting proteins and that CALCIUM-DEPENDENT PROTEIN KINASE3 interacts with GHR1. We propose that GHR1 acts in stomatal closure as a scaffolding component.

Correction: The Sulfated Laminarin Triggers a Stress Transcriptome before Priming the SA- and ROS-Dependent Defenses during Grapevine's Induced Resistance against Plasmopara viticola.

[This corrects the article DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0088145.].

Genome sequencing and population genomic analyses provide insights into the adaptive landscape of silver birch.

Silver birch (Betula pendula) is a pioneer boreal tree that can be induced to flower within 1 year. Its rapid life cycle, small (440-Mb) genome, and advanced germplasm resources make birch an attractive model for forest biotechnology. We assembled and chromosomally anchored the nuclear genome of an inbred B. pendula individual. Gene duplicates from the paleohexaploid event were enriched for transcriptional regulation, whereas tandem duplicates were overrepresented by environmental responses. Population resequencing of 80 individuals showed effective population size crashes at major points of climatic upheaval. Selective sweeps were enriched among polyploid duplicates encoding key developmental and physiological triggering functions, suggesting that local adaptation has tuned the timing of and cross-talk between fundamental plant processes. Variation around the tightly-linked light response genes PHYC and FRS10 correlated with latitude and longitude and temperature, and with precipitation for PHYC. Similar associations characterized the growth-promoting cytokinin response regulator ARR1, and the wood development genes KAK and MED5A.

A Key Role for Apoplastic H2O2 in Norway Spruce Phenolic Metabolism.

Apoplastic events such as monolignol oxidation and lignin polymerization are difficult to study in intact trees. To investigate the role of apoplastic hydrogen peroxide (H2O2) in gymnosperm phenolic metabolism, an extracellular lignin-forming cell culture of Norway spruce (Picea abies) was used as a research model. Scavenging of apoplastic H2O2 by potassium iodide repressed lignin formation, in line with peroxidases activating monolignols for lignin polymerization. Time-course analyses coupled to candidate substrate-product pair network propagation revealed differential accumulation of low-molecular-weight phenolics, including (glycosylated) oligolignols, (glycosylated) flavonoids, and proanthocyanidins, in lignin-forming and H2O2-scavenging cultures and supported that monolignols are oxidatively coupled not only in the cell wall but also in the cytoplasm, where they are coupled to other monolignols and proanthocyanidins. Dilignol glycoconjugates with reduced structures were found in the culture medium, suggesting that cells are able to transport glycosylated dilignols to the apoplast. Transcriptomic analyses revealed that scavenging of apoplastic H2O2 resulted in remodulation of the transcriptome, with reduced carbon flux into the shikimate pathway propagating down to monolignol biosynthesis. Aggregated coexpression network analysis identified candidate enzymes and transcription factors for monolignol oxidation and apoplastic H2O2 production in addition to potential H2O2 receptors. The results presented indicate that the redox state of the apoplast has a profound influence on cellular metabolism.

Large-Scale Phenomics Identifies Primary and Fine-Tuning Roles for CRKs in Responses Related to Oxidative Stress.

Cysteine-rich receptor-like kinases (CRKs) are transmembrane proteins characterized by the presence of two domains of unknown function 26 (DUF26) in their ectodomain. The CRKs form one of the largest groups of receptor-like protein kinases in plants, but their biological functions have so far remained largely uncharacterized. We conducted a large-scale phenotyping approach of a nearly complete crk T-DNA insertion line collection showing that CRKs control important aspects of plant development and stress adaptation in response to biotic and abiotic stimuli in a non-redundant fashion. In particular, the analysis of reactive oxygen species (ROS)-related stress responses, such as regulation of the stomatal aperture, suggests that CRKs participate in ROS/redox signalling and sensing. CRKs play general and fine-tuning roles in the regulation of stomatal closure induced by microbial and abiotic cues. Despite their great number and high similarity, large-scale phenotyping identified specific functions in diverse processes for many CRKs and indicated that CRK2 and CRK5 play predominant roles in growth regulation and stress adaptation, respectively. As a whole, the CRKs contribute to specificity in ROS signalling. Individual CRKs control distinct responses in an antagonistic fashion suggesting future potential for using CRKs in genetic approaches to improve plant performance and stress tolerance.

Contralateral Approach to Internal Carotid Artery Ophthalmic Segment Aneurysms: Angiographic Analysis and Surgical Results for 30 Patients.

BACKGROUND: Contralateral aneurysm clipping can be applied to bilateral intracranial aneurysms of the anterior circulation and to selected aneurysms on the medial wall of the internal carotid artery (ICA). OBJECTIVE: To identify anatomic and radiological parameters that would favor a contralateral microsurgical approach to ICA-ophthalmic segment (ICA-opht) aneurysms. METHODS: For the period January 1957 to December 2012, we retrospectively analyzed 268 patients with ICA-opht aneurysms treated in our institution. Of these patients, 30 underwent a contralateral approach; 15 patients (50%) had multiple intracranial aneurysms, and 15 patients had a single aneurysm on the contralateral side of the craniotomy. RESULTS: Thirty saccular aneurysms located on the contralateral ICA were treated. Six aneurysms (20%) were present in patients with a subarachnoid hemorrhage due to associated aneurysms, whereas 24 aneurysms (80%) had no history of bleeding. Contralateral aneurysms were smaller than 14 mm and showed no wall irregularities, calcifications, or secondary pouches. Projections of the aneurysms were superomedial (n = 23, 77%), medial (n = 4, 13%), and superior (n = 3, 10%). The median prechiasmatic distance was 5.7 mm (range, 3.4-8.7 mm), the median interoptic distance was 10.5 mm (range, 7.6-15.9 mm), and the median distance between both ICAs was 14.7 mm (range, 10.4-21.4 mm). CONCLUSION: The contralateral approach for ICA-opht aneurysms remains a treatment option for intracranial aneurysms. Its feasibility depends on specific anatomic parameters related to the aneurysm itself and to the prechiasmatic distance, interoptic distance, and relationship of the ICA with the anterior clinoid process.

GRIM REAPER peptide binds to receptor kinase PRK5 to trigger cell death in Arabidopsis.

Recognition of extracellular peptides by plasma membrane-localized receptor proteins is commonly used in signal transduction. In plants, very little is known about how extracellular peptides are processed and activated in order to allow recognition by receptors. Here, we show that induction of cell death in planta by a secreted plant protein GRIM REAPER (GRI) is dependent on the activity of the type II metacaspase METACASPASE-9. GRI is cleaved by METACASPASE-9 in vitro resulting in the release of an 11 amino acid peptide. This peptide bound in vivo to the extracellular domain of the plasma membrane-localized, atypical leucine-rich repeat receptor-like kinase POLLEN-SPECIFIC RECEPTOR-LIKE KINASE 5 (PRK5) and was sufficient to induce oxidative stress/ROS-dependent cell death. This shows a signaling pathway in plants from processing and activation of an extracellular protein to recognition by its receptor.

Carbohydrates in plant immunity and plant protection: roles and potential application as foliar sprays.

Increasing interest is devoted to carbohydrates for their roles in plant immunity. Some of them are elicitors of plant defenses whereas other ones act as signaling molecules in a manner similar to phytohormones. This review first describes the main classes of carbohydrates associated to plant immunity, their role and mode of action. More precisely, the state of the art about perception of "PAMP, MAMP, and DAMP (Pathogen-, Microbe-, Damage-Associated Molecular Patterns) type" oligosaccharides is presented and examples of induced defense events are provided. A particular attention is paid to the structure/activity relationships of these compounds. The role of sugars as signaling molecules, especially in plant microbe interactions, is also presented. Secondly, the potentialities and limits of foliar sprays of carbohydrates to stimulate plant immunity for crop protection against diseases are discussed, with focus on the roles of the leaf cuticle and phyllosphere microflora.

The sulfated laminarin triggers a stress transcriptome before priming the SA- and ROS-dependent defenses during grapevine's induced resistance against Plasmopara viticola.

Grapevine (Vitis vinifera) is susceptible to many pathogens which cause significant losses to viticulture worldwide. Chemical control is available, but agro-ecological concerns have raised interest in alternative methods, especially in triggering plant immunity by elicitor treatments. The ß-glucan laminarin (Lam) and its sulfated derivative (PS3) have been previously demonstrated to induce resistance in grapevine against downy mildew (Plasmopara viticola). However, if Lam elicits classical grapevine defenses such as oxidative burst, pathogenesis-related (PR)-proteins and phytoalexin production, PS3 triggered grapevine resistance via a poorly understood priming phenomenon. The aim of this study was to identify the molecular mechanisms of the PS3-induced resistance. For this purpose we studied i) the signaling events and transcriptome reprogramming triggered by PS3 treatment on uninfected grapevine, ii) grapevine immune responses primed by PS3 during P. viticola infection. Our results showed that i) PS3 was unable to elicit reactive oxygen species (ROS) production, cytosolic Ca(2+) concentration variations, mitogen-activated protein kinase (MAPK) activation but triggered a long lasting plasma membrane depolarization in grapevine cells, ii) PS3 and Lam shared a common stress-responsive transcriptome profile that partly overlapped the salicylate- (SA) and jasmonate-(JA)-dependent ones. After P. viticola inoculation, PS3 specifically primed the SA- and ROS-dependent defense pathways leading to grapevine induced resistance against this biotroph. Interestingly pharmacological approaches suggested that the plasma membrane depolarization and the downstream ROS production are key events of the PS3-induced resistance.

The Arabidopsis thaliana cysteine-rich receptor-like kinases CRK6 and CRK7 protect against apoplastic oxidative stress.

Receptor-like kinases are important regulators of many different processes in plants. Despite their large number only a few have been functionally characterized. One of the largest subgroups of receptor-like kinases in Arabidopsis is the cysteine-rich receptor like kinases (CRKs). High sequence similarity among the CRKs has been suggested as major cause for functional redundancy. The genomic localization of CRK genes in back-to-back repeats has made their characterization through mutant analysis unpractical. Expression profiling has linked the CRKs with reactive oxygen species, important signaling molecules in plants. Here we have investigated the role of two CRKs, CRK6 and CRK7, and analyzed their role in extracellular ROS signaling. CRK6 and CRK7 are active protein kinases with differential preference for divalent cations. Our results suggest that CRK7 is involved in mediating the responses to extracellular but not chloroplastic ROS production.

Nitric oxide in plants: production and cross-talk with Ca2+ signaling.

Nitric oxide (NO) is a diatomic gas that performs crucial functions in a wide array of physiological processes in animals. The past several years have revealed much about its roles in plants. It is well established that NO is synthesized from nitrite by nitrate reductase (NR) and via chemical pathways. There is increasing evidence for the occurrence of an alternative pathway in which NO production is catalysed from L-arginine by a so far non-identified enzyme. Contradictory results have been reported regarding the respective involvement of these enzymes in specific physiological conditions. Although much remains to be proved, we assume that these inconsistencies can be accounted for by the limited specificity of the pharmacological agents used to suppress NO synthesis but also by the reduced content of L-arginine as well as the inactivity of nitrate-permeable anion channels in nitrate reductase- and/or nitrate/nitrite-deficient plants. Another unresolved issue concerns the molecular mechanisms underlying NO effects in plants. Here, we provide evidence that the second messenger Ca2+, as well as protein kinases including MAPK and SnRK2, are very plausible mediators of the NO signals. These findings open new perspectives about NO-based signaling in plants.

Isolation and characterization of a Vitis vinifera transcription factor, VvWRKY1, and its effect on responses to fungal pathogens in transgenic tobacco plants.

Pathogen attack represents a major problem for viticulture and for agriculture in general. At present, the use of phytochemicals is more and more restrictive, and therefore it is becoming essential to control disease by having a thorough knowledge of resistance mechanisms. The present work focused on the trans-regulatory proteins potentially involved in the control of the plant defence response, the WRKY proteins. A full-length cDNA, designated VvWRKY1, was isolated from a grape berry library (Vitis vinifera L. cv. Cabernet Sauvignon). It encodes a polypeptide of 151 amino acids whose structure is characteristic of group IIc WRKY proteins. VvWRKY1 gene expression in grape is regulated in a developmental manner in berries and leaves and by various signal molecules involved in defence such as salicylic acid, ethylene, and hydrogen peroxide. Biochemical analysis indicates that VvWRKY1 specifically interacts with the W-box in various nucleotidic contexts. Functional analysis of VvWRKY1 was performed by overexpression in tobacco, and transgenic plants exhibited reduced susceptibility to various fungi but not to viruses. These results are consistent with a possible role for VvWRKY1 in grapevine defence against fungal pathogens.

Elicitor and resistance-inducing activities of beta-1,4 cellodextrins in grapevine, comparison with beta-1,3 glucans and alpha-1,4 oligogalacturonides.

Cellodextrins (CD), water-soluble derivatives of cellulose composed of beta-1,4 glucoside residues, have been shown to induce a variety of defence responses in grapevine (Vitis vinifera L.) cells. The larger oligomers of CD rapidly induced transient generation of H2O2 and elevation in free cytosolic calcium, followed by a differential expression of genes encoding key enzymes of the phenylpropanoid pathway and pathogenesis-related (PR) proteins as well as stimulation of chitinase and beta-1,3 glucanase activities. Most of these defence reactions were also induced by linear beta-1,3 glucans (betaGlu) and alpha-1,4 oligogalacturonides (OGA) of different degree of polymerization (DP), but the intensity of some reactions induced by CD was different when compared with betaGlu and OGA effects. Moreover, desensitization assays using H2O2 production showed that cells treated with CD remained fully responsive to a second application of OGA, suggesting a different mode of perception of these oligosaccharides by grape cells. None of CD, betaGlu, or OGA induced HSR gene expression nor did they induce cell death. In accordance with elicitor activity in grapevine cells, CD-incubated leaves challenged with Botrytis cinerea also resulted in a significant reduction of the disease. Data suggest that CD could operate via other distinct reaction pathways than betaGlu and OGA. They also highlight the requirement of a specific DP for each oligosaccharide to induce the defence response.

Cryptogein-induced anion effluxes: electrophysiological properties and analysis of the mechanisms through which they contribute to the elicitor-triggered cell death.

Anion effluxes are amongst the earliest reactions of plant cells to elicitors of defence responses. However, their properties and their role in disease resistance remain almost unknown. We previously demonstrated that cryptogein, an elicitor of tobacco defence responses, induces a nitrate (NO(3) (-)) efflux. This efflux is an early prerequisite to the cryptogein-triggered hypersensitive response (HR). Here, we analyzed the electrophysiological properties of the elicitor-mediated NO(3) (-) efflux and clarified the mechanisms through which it contributes to cell death. Application of the discontinuous single electrode voltage-clamp technique in tobacco cells elicited with cryptogein enabled us to record the activation of slow-type deactivating anion channel currents. Cryptogein-induced plasma membrane depolarization and Ca(2+) influx, an essential component of elicitor signalling for HR cell death, were prevented by inhibiting the NO(3) (-) efflux. Similarly, pharmacological blocking of the anion efflux suppressed vacuolar collapse, a hallmark of cell death. The role of NO(3) (-) efflux in mediating proteases activation was further assessed. It is shown that cryptogein induced the activation of three proteases with apparent molecular masses of 95, 190 and 240 kDa. Their activation occurred independently on the anion efflux and, together with cell death, was strongly reduced by cycloheximide and the protease inhibitor PMSF. In contrast, the NO(3) (-) efflux was shown to promote the accumulation of transcripts encoding vacuolar processing enzymes, a family of proteases previously reported to contribute to the disruption of vacuole integrity observed during the HR. Collectively, our data indicate that anion efflux is an early prerequisite to morphological and biochemical events participating to cell death.