Significant, but not biologically relevant: Nosema ceranae infections and winter losses of honey bee colonies.

The Western honey bee Apis mellifera, which provides about 90% of commercial pollination, is under threat from diverse abiotic and biotic factors. The ectoparasitic mite Varroa destructor vectoring deformed wing virus (DWV) has been identified as the main biotic contributor to honey bee colony losses worldwide, while the role of the microsporidium Nosema ceranae is still controversially discussed. In an attempt to solve this controversy, we statistically analyzed a unique data set on honey bee colony health collected from a cohort of honey bee colonies over 15 years and comprising more than 3000 data sets on mite infestation levels, Nosema spp. infections, and winter losses. Multivariate statistical analysis confirms that V. destructor is the major cause of colony winter losses. Although N. ceranae infections are also statistically significantly correlated with colony losses, determination of the effect size reveals that N. ceranae infections are of no or low biological relevance.

A Comparison of Different Matrices for the Laboratory Diagnosis of the Epizootic American Foulbrood of Honey Bees.

American Foulbrood (AFB) of honey bees caused by the spore-forming bacterium Paenibacillus larvae is a notifiable epizootic in most countries. Authorities often consider a rigorous eradication policy the only sustainable control measure. However, early diagnosis of infected but not yet diseased colonies opens up the possibility of ridding these colonies of P. larvae spores by the shook swarm method, thus preventing colony destruction by AFB or official control orders. Therefore, surveillance of bee colonies for P. larvae infection followed by appropriate sanitary measures is a very important intervention to control AFB. For the detection of P. larvae spores in infected colonies, samples of brood comb honey, adult bees, or hive debris are commonly used. We here present our results from a comparative study on the suitability of these matrices in reliably and correctly detecting P. larvae spores contained in these matrices. Based on the sensitivity and limit of detection of P. larvae spores in samples from hive debris, adult bees, and brood comb honey, we conclude that the latter two are equally well-suited for AFB surveillance programs. Hive debris samples should only be used when it is not possible to collect honey or adult bee samples from brood combs.

Molecular basis of antibiotic self-resistance in a bee larvae pathogen.

Paenibacillus larvae, the causative agent of the devastating honey-bee disease American Foulbrood, produces the cationic polyketide-peptide hybrid paenilamicin that displays antibacterial and antifungal activity. Its biosynthetic gene cluster contains a gene coding for the N-acetyltransferase PamZ. We show that PamZ acts as self-resistance factor in Paenibacillus larvae by deactivation of paenilamicin. Using tandem mass spectrometry, nuclear magnetic resonance spectroscopy and synthetic diastereomers, we identified the N-terminal amino group of the agmatinamic acid as the N-acetylation site. These findings highlight the pharmacophore region of paenilamicin, which we very recently identified as a ribosome inhibitor. Here, we further determined the crystal structure of PamZ:acetyl-CoA complex at 1.34 Å resolution. An unusual tandem-domain architecture provides a well-defined substrate-binding groove decorated with negatively-charged residues to specifically attract the cationic paenilamicin. Our results will help to understand the mode of action of paenilamicin and its role in pathogenicity of Paenibacillus larvae to fight American Foulbrood.

Cold case: The disappearance of Egypt bee virus, a fourth distinct master strain of deformed wing virus linked to honeybee mortality in 1970's Egypt.

In 1977, a sample of diseased adult honeybees (Apis mellifera) from Egypt was found to contain large amounts of a previously unknown virus, Egypt bee virus, which was subsequently shown to be serologically related to deformed wing virus (DWV). By sequencing the original isolate, we demonstrate that Egypt bee virus is in fact a fourth unique, major variant of DWV (DWV-D): more closely related to DWV-C than to either DWV-A or DWV-B. DWV-A and DWV-B are the most common DWV variants worldwide due to their close relationship and transmission by Varroa destructor. However, we could not find any trace of DWV-D in several hundred RNA sequencing libraries from a worldwide selection of honeybee, varroa and bumblebee samples. This means that DWV-D has either become extinct, been replaced by other DWV variants better adapted to varroa-mediated transmission, or persists only in a narrow geographic or host range, isolated from common bee and beekeeping trade routes.

Tripartite interactions: how immunity, microbiota and pathogens interact and affect pathogen virulence evolution.

The bipartite interactions between insect hosts and their bacterial gut microbiota, or their bacterial pathogens, are empirically and theoretically well-explored. However, direct, and indirect tripartite interactions will also likely occur inside a host. These interactions will almost certainly affect the trajectory of pathogen virulence evolution, an area that is currently under researched. The interactions within tripartite associations can be competitive, that is, exploitative-competition, interference-competition or apparent-competition. Competitive interactions will be significantly influenced by non-competitive effects, for example, immunopathology, immunosuppression, and microbiota-mediated tolerance. Considering a combination of these interactions and effects, will enable an increased understanding of the evolution of pathogen virulence. This new perspective allows us to identify several novel research questions, which we hope will be a useful framework for future research.

Total Synthesis and Biological Evaluation of Paenilamicins from the Honey Bee Pathogen Paenibacillus larvae.

Paenilamicins are a group of complex polycationic peptide secondary metabolites with antibacterial and antifungal activities produced by the devastating honey bee brood pathogen Paenibacillus larvae causing the lethal brood disease American Foulbrood (AFB). Here, we report the convergent total synthesis and structural revision of paenilamicin B2. Specific stereoisomers of paenilamicin B2 were synthesized for unambiguous confirmation of the natural product structure and for evaluation of biological activities. These studies revealed the N-terminal fragment of paenilamicin as an important pharmacophore. Infection assays using bee larvae and the insect pathogen Bacillus thuringiensis demonstrated that paenilamicins outcompete bacterial competitors in the ecological niche of P. larvae. Finally, we show first data that classifies paenilamicins as potential ribosome inhibitors. Hence, our synthesis route is a further step for understanding the pathogenicity of P. larvae and for thorough structure-activity-relationship as well as mode-of-action studies in the near future.

Anti-Virulence Strategy against the Honey Bee Pathogenic Bacterium Paenibacillus larvae via Small Molecule Inhibitors of the Bacterial Toxin Plx2A.

American Foulbrood, caused by Paenibacillus larvae, is the most devastating bacterial honey bee brood disease. Finding a treatment against American Foulbrood would be a huge breakthrough in the battle against the disease. Recently, small molecule inhibitors against virulence factors have been suggested as candidates for the development of anti-virulence strategies against bacterial infections. We therefore screened an in-house library of synthetic small molecules and a library of flavonoid natural products, identifying the synthetic compound M3 and two natural, plant-derived small molecules, Acacetin and Baicalein, as putative inhibitors of the recently identified P. larvae toxin Plx2A. All three inhibitors were potent in in vitro enzyme activity assays and two compounds were shown to protect insect cells against Plx2A intoxication. However, when tested in exposure bioassays with honey bee larvae, no effect on mortality could be observed for the synthetic or the plant-derived inhibitors, thus suggesting that the pathogenesis strategies of P. larvae are likely to be too complex to be disarmed in an anti-virulence strategy aimed at a single virulence factor. Our study also underscores the importance of not only testing substances in in vitro or cell culture assays, but also testing the compounds in P. larvae-infected honey bee larvae.

The Buzz about ADP-Ribosylation Toxins from Paenibacillus larvae, the Causative Agent of American Foulbrood in Honey Bees.

The Gram-positive, spore-forming bacterium Paenibacillus larvae is the etiological agent of American Foulbrood, a highly contagious and often fatal honey bee brood disease. The species P. larvae comprises five so-called ERIC-genotypes which differ in virulence and pathogenesis strategies. In the past two decades, the identification and characterization of several P. larvae virulence factors have led to considerable progress in understanding the molecular basis of pathogen-host-interactions during P. larvae infections. Among these virulence factors are three ADP-ribosylating AB-toxins, Plx1, Plx2, and C3larvin. Plx1 is a phage-born toxin highly homologous to the pierisin-like AB-toxins expressed by the whites-and-yellows family Pieridae (Lepidoptera, Insecta) and to scabin expressed by the plant pathogen Streptomyces scabiei. These toxins ADP-ribosylate DNA and thus induce apoptosis. While the presumed cellular target of Plx1 still awaits final experimental proof, the classification of the A subunits of the binary AB-toxins Plx2 and C3larvin as typical C3-like toxins, which ADP-ribosylate Rho-proteins, has been confirmed experimentally. Normally, C3-exoenzymes do not occur together with a B subunit partner, but as single domain toxins. Interestingly, the B subunits of the two P. larvae C3-like toxins are homologous to the B-subunits of C2-like toxins with striking structural similarity to the PA-63 protomer of Bacillus anthracis.

Direct Evidence for Infection of Varroa destructor Mites with the Bee-Pathogenic Deformed Wing Virus Variant B - but Not Variant A - via Fluorescence-in situ-Hybridization Analysis.

Deformed wing virus (DWV) is a bee pathogenic, single- and positive-stranded RNA virus that has been involved in severe honey bee colony losses worldwide. DWV, when transmitted horizontally or vertically from bee to bee, causes mainly covert infections not associated with any visible symptoms or damage. Overt infections occur after vectorial transmission of DWV to the developing bee pupae through the ectoparasitic mite Varroa destructor Symptoms of overt infections are pupal death, bees emerging with deformed wings and shortened abdomens, or cognitive impairment due to brain infection. So far, three variants of DWV, DWV-A, DWV-B, and DWV-C, have been described. While it is widely accepted that V. destructor acts as vector of DWV, the question of whether the mite only functions as a mechanical vector or whether DWV can infect the mite thus using it as a biological vector is hotly debated, because in the literature data can be found that support both hypotheses. In order to settle this scientific dispute, we analyzed putatively DWV-infected mites with a newly established protocol for fluorescence-in situ-hybridization of mites and demonstrated DWV-specific signals inside mite cells. We provide compelling and direct evidence that DWV-B infects the intestinal epithelium and the salivary glands of V. destructor In contrast, no evidence for DWV-A infecting mite cells was found. Our data are key to understanding the pathobiology of DWV, the mite's role as a biological DWV vector and the quasispecies dynamics of this RNA virus when switching between insect and arachnid host species.IMPORTANCE Deformed wing virus (DWV) is a bee pathogenic, originally rather benign, single- and positive-stranded RNA virus. Only the vectorial transmission of this virus to honey bees by the ectoparasitic mite Varroa destructor leads to fatal or symptomatic infections of individuals, usually followed by collapse of the entire colony. Studies on whether the mite only acts as a mechanical virus vector or whether DWV can infect the mite and thus use it as a biological vector have led to disparate results. In our study using fluorescence-in situ-hybridization we provide compelling and direct evidence that at least the DWV-B variant infects the gut epithelium and the salivary glands of V. destructor Hence, the host range of DWV includes both, bees (Insecta) and mites (Arachnida). Our data contribute to a better understanding of the triangular relationship between honey bees, V. destructor and DWV and the evolution of virulence in this viral bee pathogen.

Development of a loop-mediated isothermal amplification (LAMP) and a direct LAMP for the specific detection of Nosema ceranae, a parasite of honey bees.

Nosema ceranae is a ubiquitous microsporidian pathogen infecting the midgut of honey bees. The infection causes bee nosemosis, a disease associated with malnutrition, dysentery, and lethargic behavior, and results in considerable economic losses in apiculture. The use of a rapid, sensitive, and inexpensive DNA-based molecular detection method assists in the surveillance and eventual control of this pathogen. To this end, a loop-mediated isothermal amplification (LAMP) assay targeting the single-copy gene encoding the polar tube protein 3 (PTP3) has been developed. Genomic DNA of N. ceranae-infected forager bees sampled from distant geographic regions could be reliably amplified using the established LAMP assay. The N. ceranae-LAMP showed higher sensitivity than a classical reference PCR (98.6 vs 95.7%), when both approaches were applied to the detection of N. ceranae. LAMP detected a ten-fold lower infection rate than the reference PCR (1 pg vs 10 pg genomic DNA, respectively). In addition, we show highly specific and sensitive detection of N. ceranae from spore preparations in a direct LAMP format. No cross-reactions with genomic DNA and/or spores from N. apis, often co-infecting A. mellifera, or from N. bombi, infecting bumble bees, were observed. This low-cost and time-saving molecular detection method can be easily applied in simple laboratory settings, facilitating a rapid detection of N. ceranae in honey bees in epidemiological studies, surveillance and control, as well as evaluation of therapeutic measures against nosemosis.

Rapid Gastrointestinal Passage May Protect Bombus terrestris from Becoming a True Host for Nosema ceranae.

Pollination provided by managed honey bees as well as by all the wild bee species is a crucial ecosystem service contributing to the conservation of biodiversity and human food security. Therefore, it is not only the health status of honey bees but also the health status of wild bees that concerns us all. In this context, recent field studies suggesting interspecies transmission of the microsporidium parasite Nosema ceranae from honey bees (Apis mellifera) to bumblebees (Bombus spp.) were alarming. On the basis of these studies, N. ceranae was identified as an emerging infectious agent (EIA) of bumblebees, although knowledge of its impact on its new host was still elusive. In order to investigate the infectivity, virulence, and pathogenesis of N. ceranae infections in bumblebees, we performed controlled laboratory exposure bioassays with Bombus terrestris by orally inoculating the bees with infectious N. ceranae spores. We comprehensively analyzed the infection status of the bees via microscopic analysis of squash preparations, PCR-based detection of N. ceranae DNA, histology of Giemsa-stained tissue sections, and species-specific fluorescence in situ hybridization. We did not find any evidence for a true infection of bumblebees by N. ceranae Through a series of experiments, we ruled out the possibility that spore infectivity, spore dosage, incubation time, or age and source of the bumblebees caused these negative results. Instead, our results clearly demonstrate that no infection and production of new spores took place in bumblebees after they ingested N. ceranae spores in our experiments. Thus, our results question the classification of N. ceranae as an emerging infectious agent for bumblebees.IMPORTANCE Emerging infectious diseases (EIDs) pose a major health threat to both humans and animals. EIDs include, for instance, those that have spread into hitherto naive populations. Recently, the honey bee-specific microsporidium Nosema ceranae has been detected by molecular methods in field samples of bumblebees. This detection of N. ceranae DNA in bumblebees led to the assumption that N. ceranae infections represent an EID of bumblebees and resulted in speculations on the role of this pathogen in driving bumblebee declines. In order to address the issue of whether N. ceranae is an emerging infectious agent for bumblebees, we experimentally analyzed host susceptibility and pathogen reproduction in this new host-pathogen interaction. Surprisingly, we did not find any evidence for a true infection of Bombus terrestris by N. ceranae, questioning the classification of N. ceranae infections as EIDs of bumblebees and demonstrating that detection of microsporidian DNA does not equal detection of microsporidian infection.

Characterization of C3larvinA, a novel RhoA-targeting ADP-ribosyltransferase toxin produced by the honey bee pathogen, Paenibacillus larvae.

C3larvinA is a putative virulence factor produced by Paenibacillus larvae enterobacterial-repetitive-intergenic-consensus (ERIC) III/IV (strain 11-8051). Biochemical, functional and structural analyses of C3larvinA revealed that it belongs to the C3-like mono-ADP-ribosylating toxin subgroup. Mammalian RhoA was the target substrate for its transferase activity suggesting that it may be the biological target of C3larvinA. The kinetic parameters of the NAD+ substrate for the transferase (KM = 75 ± 10 µM) and glycohydrolase (GH) (KM = 107 ± 20 µM) reactions were typical for a C3-like bacterial toxin, including the Plx2A virulence factor from Paenibacillus larvae ERIC I. Upon cytoplasmic expression in yeast, C3larvinA caused a growth-defective phenotype indicating that it is an active C3-like toxin and is cytotoxic to eukaryotic cells. The catalytic variant of the Q187-X-E189 motif in C3larvinA showed no cytotoxicity toward yeast confirming that the cytotoxicity of this factor depends on its enzymatic activity. A homology consensus model of C3larvinA with NAD+ substrate was built on the structure of Plx2A, provided additional confirmation that C3larvinA is a member of the C3-like mono-ADP-ribosylating toxin subgroup. A homology model of C3larvinA with NADH and RhoA was built on the structure of the C3cer-NADH-RhoA complex which provided further evidence that C3larvinA is a C3-like toxin that shares an identical catalytic mechanism with C3cer from Bacillus cereus. C3larvinA induced actin cytoskeleton reorganization in murine macrophages, whereas in insect cells, vacuolization and bi-nucleated cells were observed. These cellular effects are consistent with C3larvinA disrupting RhoA function by covalent modification that is shared among C3-like bacterial toxins.

The biological role of the enigmatic C3larvinAB toxin of the honey bee pathogenic bacterium Paenibacillus larvae.

Paenibacillus larvae is the causative agent of the notifiable epizootic American foulbrood, a fatal bacterial disease of honey bee larvae. The species P. larvae has been classified into four differentially virulent and prevalent genotypes (ERIC I-IV), which also differ in their virulence factor equipment. Recently, a novel P. larvae toxin, the C3-like C3larvin, has been described. Genome analysis now revealed that the C3larvin gene is actually a part of a toxin locus encompassing two genes encoding a binary AB toxin with the A subunit being C3larvin (C3larvinA) and a putative B subunit (C3larvinB) encoded by the second gene. Sequence and structural analyses demonstrated that C3larvinB is a homologue of the Bacillus anthracis protective antigen (PA), the B subunit of anthrax toxin. The C3larvinAB toxin locus was interrupted by point mutations in all analysed P. larvae ERIC I and ERIC II strains. Only one P. larvae ERIC III/IV strain harboured an uninterrupted toxin locus comprising full-length genes for C3larvinA and B. Exposure bioassays did not substantiate a role as virulence factor for C3larvinAB in P. larvae ERIC I/II. However, the PA homologue C3larvinB had an influence on the virulence of the unique P. larvae strain expressing the functional C3larvinAB locus.

In vivo evolution of viral virulence: switching of deformed wing virus between hosts results in virulence changes and sequence shifts.

The health of the Western honey bee is threatened by a global epidemic of deformed wing virus (DWV) infections driven by the ectoparasitic mite Varroa destructor acting as mechanical and biological virus vector. Three different variants of DWV, DWV-A, -B and -C exist. Virulence differences between these variants and their relation to V. destructor are still controversially discussed. We performed laboratory experiments to analyze the virulence of DWV directly isolated from crippled bees (DWVP0 ) or after one additional passage in bee pupae (DWVP1 ). We demonstrated that DWVP0 was more virulent than DWVP1 for pupae, when pupal mortality was taken as virulence marker, and for adult bees, when neurotropism and cognitive impairment were taken as virulence markers. Phylogenetic analysis supported that DWV exists as quasispecies and showed that DWVP0 clustered with DWV-B and DWVP1 with DWV-A when the phylogeny was based on the master sequences of the RNA-dependent RNA polymerase but not so when it was based on the VP3 region master sequences. We propose that switching of DWV between the bee and the mite host is accompanied by changes in viral sequence, tissue tropism and virulence and that the RNA-dependent RNA polymerase is involved in determining host range and virulence.

Swarming motility and biofilm formation of Paenibacillus larvae, the etiological agent of American Foulbrood of honey bees (Apis mellifera).

American Foulbrood is a worldwide distributed, fatal disease of the brood of the Western honey bee (Apis mellifera). The causative agent of this fatal brood disease is the Gram-positive, spore-forming bacterium Paenibacillus larvae, which can be classified into four different genotypes (ERIC I-IV), with ERIC I and II being the ones isolated from contemporary AFB outbreaks. P. larvae is a peritrichously flagellated bacterium and, hence, we hypothesized that P. larvae is capable of coordinated and cooperative multicellular behaviors like swarming motility and biofilm formation. In order to analyze these behaviors of P. larvae, we firstly established appropriate functional assays. Using these assays we demonstrated that P. larvae ERIC II, but not P. larvae ERIC I, was capable of swarming. Swarming motility was hampered in a P. larvae ERIC II-mutant lacking production of paenilarvin, an iturin-like lipopeptide exclusively expressed by this genotype. Both genotypes were able to form free floating biofilm aggregates loosely attached to the walls of the culture wells. Visualizing the biofilms by Congo red and thioflavin S staining suggested structural differences between the biofilms formed. Biofilm formation was shown to be independent from paenilarvin production because the paenilarvin deficient mutant was comparably able to form a biofilm.

Bacterial pathogens of bees.

Pollination is an indispensable ecosystem service provided by many insects, especially by wild and managed bee species. Hence, reports on large scale honey bee colony losses and on population declines of many wild bees were alarming and resulted in increased awareness of the importance of bee health and increased interest in bee pathogens. To serve this interest, this review will give a comprehensive overview on bacterial bee pathogens by covering not only the famous pathogens (Paenibacillus larvae, Melissococcus plutonius), but also the orphan pathogens which have largely been neglected by the scientific community so far (spiroplasmas) and the pathogens which were only recently discovered as being pathogenic to bees (Serratia marcescens, Lysinibacillus sphaericus).

Characterization of the toxin Plx2A, a RhoA-targeting ADP-ribosyltransferase produced by the honey bee pathogen Paenibacillus larvae.

The toxin Plx2A is an important virulence factor of Paenibacillus larvae, the etiological agent of American Foulbrood, the most destructive bacterial disease of honey bees. Biochemical and functional analyses as well as the crystal structure of Plx2A revealed that it belongs to the C3 mono-ADP-ribosylating toxin subgroup. RhoA was identified as the cellular target of Plx2A activity. The kinetic parameters (KM , kcat ) were established for both the transferase and glycohydrolase reactions. When expressed in yeast, Plx2A was cytotoxic for eukaryotic cells and catalytic variants confirmed that the cytotoxicity of Plx2A depends on its enzymatic activity. The crystal structure of Plx2A was solved to 1.65 Å and confirmed that it is a C3-like toxin, although with a new molecular twist, it has a B-domain. A molecular model of the 'active' enzyme conformation in complex with NAD+ was produced by computational methods based on the recent structure of C3bot1 with RhoA. In murine macrophages, Plx2A induced actin cytoskeleton reorganization while in insect cells, vacuolization and the occurrence of bi-nucleated cells was observed. The latter is indicative of an inhibition of cytokinesis. All these cellular effects are consistent with Plx2A inhibiting the activity of RhoA by covalent modification.

Long-Term Temporal Trends of Nosema spp. Infection Prevalence in Northeast Germany: Continuous Spread of Nosema ceranae, an Emerging Pathogen of Honey Bees (Apis mellifera), but No General Replacement of Nosema apis.

The Western honey bee (Apis mellifera) is widely used as commercial pollinator in worldwide agriculture and, therefore, plays an important role in global food security. Among the parasites and pathogens threatening health and survival of honey bees are two species of microsporidia, Nosema apis and Nosema ceranae. Nosema ceranae is considered an emerging pathogen of the Western honey bee. Reports on the spread of N. ceranae suggested that this presumably highly virulent species is replacing its more benign congener N. apis in the global A. mellifera population. We here present a 12 year longitudinal cohort study on the prevalence of N. apis and N. ceranae in Northeast Germany. Between 2005 and 2016, a cohort of about 230 honey bee colonies originating from 23 apiaries was sampled twice a year (spring and autumn) resulting in a total of 5,600 bee samples which were subjected to microscopic and molecular analysis for determining the presence of infections with N. apis or/and N. ceranae. Throughout the entire study period, both N. apis- and N. ceranae-infections could be diagnosed within the cohort. Logistic regression analysis of the prevalence data demonstrated a significant increase of N. ceranae-infections over the last 12 years, both in autumn (reflecting the development during the summer) and in spring (reflecting the development over winter) samples. Cell culture experiments confirmed that N. ceranae has a higher proliferative potential than N. apis at 27° and 33°C potentially explaining the increase in N. ceranae prevalence during summer. In autumn, characterized by generally low infection prevalence, this increase was accompanied by a significant decrease in N. apis-infection prevalence. In contrast, in spring, the season with a higher prevalence of infection, no significant decrease of N. apis infections despite a significant increase in N. ceranae infections could be observed. Therefore, our data do not support a general advantage of N. ceranae over N. apis and an overall replacement of N. apis by N. ceranae in the studied honey bee population.

Unity in defence: honeybee workers exhibit conserved molecular responses to diverse pathogens.

BACKGROUND: Organisms typically face infection by diverse pathogens, and hosts are thought to have developed specific responses to each type of pathogen they encounter. The advent of transcriptomics now makes it possible to test this hypothesis and compare host gene expression responses to multiple pathogens at a genome-wide scale. Here, we performed a meta-analysis of multiple published and new transcriptomes using a newly developed bioinformatics approach that filters genes based on their expression profile across datasets. Thereby, we identified common and unique molecular responses of a model host species, the honey bee (Apis mellifera), to its major pathogens and parasites: the Microsporidia Nosema apis and Nosema ceranae, RNA viruses, and the ectoparasitic mite Varroa destructor, which transmits viruses. RESULTS: We identified a common suite of genes and conserved molecular pathways that respond to all investigated pathogens, a result that suggests a commonality in response mechanisms to diverse pathogens. We found that genes differentially expressed after infection exhibit a higher evolutionary rate than non-differentially expressed genes. Using our new bioinformatics approach, we unveiled additional pathogen-specific responses of honey bees; we found that apoptosis appeared to be an important response following microsporidian infection, while genes from the immune signalling pathways, Toll and Imd, were differentially expressed after Varroa/virus infection. Finally, we applied our bioinformatics approach and generated a gene co-expression network to identify highly connected (hub) genes that may represent important mediators and regulators of anti-pathogen responses. CONCLUSIONS: Our meta-analysis generated a comprehensive overview of the host metabolic and other biological processes that mediate interactions between insects and their pathogens. We identified key host genes and pathways that respond to phylogenetically diverse pathogens, representing an important source for future functional studies as well as offering new routes to identify or generate pathogen resilient honey bee stocks. The statistical and bioinformatics approaches that were developed for this study are broadly applicable to synthesize information across transcriptomic datasets. These approaches will likely have utility in addressing a variety of biological questions.