Nanoemulsion: process selection and application in cosmetics--a review.

In recent decades, considerable and continuous growth in consumer demand in the cosmetics field has spurred the development of sophisticated formulations, aiming at high performance, attractive appearance, sensorial benefit and safety. Yet despite increasing demand from consumers, the formulator faces certain restrictions regarding the optimum equilibrium between the active compound concentration and the formulation base taking into account the nature of the skin structure, mainly concerning to the ideal penetration of the active compound, due to the natural skin barrier. Emulsion is a mixture of two immiscible phases, and the interest in nanoscale emulsion has been growing considerably in recent decades due to its specific attributes such as high stability, attractive appearance and drug delivery properties; therefore, performance is expected to improve using a lipid-based nanocarrier. Nanoemulsions are generated by different approaches: the so-called high-energy and low-energy methods. The global overview of these mechanisms and different alternatives for each method are presented in this paper, along with their benefits and drawbacks. As a cosmetics formulation is reflected in product delivery to consumers, nanoemulsion development with prospects for large-scale production is one of the key attributes in the method selection process. Thus, the aim of this review was to highlight the main high- and low-energy methods applicable in cosmetics and dermatological product development, their specificities, recent research on these methods in the cosmetics and consideration for the process selection optimization. The specific process with regard to inorganic nanoparticles, polymer nanoparticles and nanocapsule formulation is not considered in this paper.

Enterobacter sakazakii: an emerging problem in paediatric nutrition.

Recently there has been considerable concern related to the presence of bacteria, in particular Enterobacter sakazakii, in powdered infant formula milk. E. sakazakii, a member of the family Enterobacteriaceae, is an emerging opportunistic pathogen that has been associated with cases of meningitis, necrotizing enterocolitis and sepsis in premature and full-term infants. Feeding with powdered infant formula has been epidemiologically implicated in several clinical cases. Powdered infant formula is not a sterile product; good hygienic practice is, therefore, necessary in its reconstitution to reduce the risk of infection. The ingestion of raised numbers of E. sakazakii resulting from storage at room temperature after reconstitution is highlighted as well as the uncertain routes of E. sakazakii product contamination.

How much protein is safe?

BACKGROUND: Since breastfeeding and human milk seem to prevent, while high dietary proteins in the first 2 y of life seem to promote, later overweight, questions have been raised on the safe levels of proteins in the early years. How much protein (as a percentage of total calorie intake) is safe? METHODS: Revision of available data on the protein content of human milk, protein intake in the first 2 y of life and their association with body mass development. RESULTS: We should move from the figure of 7-8% in the 4-month exclusively breastfed infants up to the maximum acceptable levels of 14% in 12-24-month-old infants. When protein supply represents less than 6% and energy is limited, fully breastfed infants are likely to enter a status of negative nutrient balance. Over the limit of 14% energy from proteins in the 6-24 months period, some mechanisms may begin to operate, leading young children towards an early adiposity rebound and overweight development, beyond any genetic predisposition. Preliminary data seem to indicate a causal role for whole cow's milk proteins. CONCLUSION: We suggest maintaining breastfeeding as long as possible, and, in case human milk is insufficient, to introduce infant formulas, appropriate for age, up to 18-24 months, in order to keep protein intakes in the safe range of 8-12% within a diet adequate in energy and balanced as far as macronutrients.