Associations Between Supported Accommodation and Health and Re-offending Outcomes: a Retrospective Data Linkage Study.

Following release from prison, housing and health issues form a complex and mutually reinforcing dynamic, increasing reincarceration risk. Supported accommodation aims to mitigate these post-release challenges. We describe the impact of attending Rainbow Lodge (RL), a post-release supported accommodation service for men in Sydney, Australia, on criminal justice and emergency health outcomes. Our retrospective cohort study using linked administrative data includes 415 individuals referred to RL between January 2015 and October 2020. Outcomes of interest were rates of criminal charges, emergency department (ED) presentations and ambulance attendance; and time to first reincarceration, criminal charge, ED presentation and ambulance attendance. The exposure of interest was attending RL; covariates included demographic characteristics, release year and prior criminal justice and emergency health contact. Those who attended RL (n = 170, 41%) more commonly identified as Aboriginal or Torres Strait Islander (52% vs 41%; p = 0.025). There was strong evidence that attending RL reduced the incidence criminal charges (adjusted rate ratio [ARR] = 0.56; 95% confidence interval [CI] 0.340.86; p = 0.009). Absolute rates indicate a weak protective effect of RL attendance on ED presentation and ambulance attendance; however, adjusted analyses indicated no evidence of an association between attending RL and rates of ED presentations (ARR = 0.88; 95% CI = 0.65-1.21), or ambulance attendance (ARR = 0.82; 95% CI = 0.57-1.18). There was no evidence of an association between attending RL and time to first reincarceration, charge, ED presentation or ambulance attendance. Greater detail about reasons for emergency health service contact and other self-report outcome measures may better inform how supported accommodation is meeting its intended aims.

Comparing police use of drug detection dogs amongst injecting and non-injecting groups of people who regularly use drugs in Australia.

INTRODUCTION: Drug detection dogs are utilised across multiple settings, however existing literature focuses predominantly on festival-based encounters. We compare drug dog encounters in non-festival settings among two samples of people who regularly use drugs, and investigate factors associated with witness only versus stop and/or search encounters. METHODS: Australians who regularly (i.e., ≥monthly) use ecstasy and/or other illegal stimulants (n = 777; Ecstasy and Related Drugs Reporting System (EDRS)) or inject illegal drugs (n = 862; Illicit Drugs Reporting System (IDRS)) were surveyed between April-June, 2019. Univariable regression analyses were used to test for differences in drug dog encounters between samples, and to identify factors associated with a more intensive drug dog encounter (namely those that involved a stop and/or search). RESULTS: People who inject drugs were less likely to witness drug dogs than those who regularly use ecstasy and/or other illegal stimulants (odds ratio (OR) 0.46; 95 % CI 0.30-0.69). They were significantly more likely than EDRS participants to report being stopped and searched (3.29; 1.68-6.44) however. Among those carrying drugs at their last stop and/or search encounter, the majority of both samples reported that their drugs were not detected by police. IDRS participants aged 35-49 were more likely to report a stop and/or search encounter than those aged 17-34; no significant associations were found among the EDRS sample. CONCLUSIONS: Despite participants who use ecstasy and/other stimulants being more likely than those who regularly inject drugs to report encountering drug dogs in non-festival settings, participants who inject drugs were more likely to report an intensive or invasive drug dog encounter and/or receiving a formal criminal justice consequence. This study reinforces questions about the efficacy and appropriateness of drug dog operations.

The impact of supported accommodation on health and criminal justice outcomes of people released from prison: a systematic literature review.

BACKGROUND: Supported accommodation intends to address challenges arising following release from prison; however, impact of services, and of specific service components, is unclear. We describe key characteristics of supported accommodation, including program components and outcomes/impact; and distil best-evidence components. METHODS: We conducted a systematic review, searching relevant databases in November 2022. Data were synthesised via effect direction plots according to the Synthesis Without Meta-analysis guidelines. We assessed study quality using the McGill Mixed Methods Appraisal Tool, and certainty in evidence using the GRADE framework. RESULTS: Twenty-eight studies were included; predominantly cross-sectional. Program components which address life skills, vocational training, AOD use, and mental health appear to positively impact criminal justice outcomes. Criminal justice outcomes were the most commonly reported, and while we identified a reduction in parole revocations and reincarceration, outcomes were otherwise mixed. Variable design, often lacking rigour, and inconsistent outcome reporting limited assessment of these outcomes, and subsequently certainty in findings was low. CONCLUSION: Post-release supported accommodation may reduce parole revocations and reincarceration. Despite limitations in the literature, the findings presented herein represent current best evidence. Future studies should clearly define program components and measure their impact; use analyses which reflect the high risk of adverse outcomes, such as time-to-event analyses; and consider outcomes which reflect the range of challenges faced by people leaving prison. REGISTRATION: PROSPERO registration CRD42020189821.

Encounters with police drug detection dogs at music festivals amongst people who regularly use ecstasy and/or other illicit stimulants in Australia.

INTRODUCTION: Despite increasing evidence challenging the effectiveness and legality of police drug dog operations, these strategies remain common. We aimed to describe drug dog encounters at music festivals, behavioural adaptations taken in anticipation of their presence and consequences of encounters amongst a sample of people who regularly use MDMA/ecstasy. METHODS: Data were collected via interviewer-administered questionnaires in April-June 2019. Australians aged 16 years or older who used MDMA/ecstasy and/or other stimulants monthly in the last 6 months were recruited from capital cities via social media and word-of-mouth (n = 797). Participants reported recent drug dog encounters, encounter settings and actions taken in anticipation of and in response to encounters. RESULTS: In this sample, encounters with drug dogs at festivals were common (60%), with most participants (92%) reporting anticipating the encounter. Most (86%) of this group reported behavioural adaptations to avoid a detection, with concealing drugs well (57%) and consuming prior to entering the festival (20%) most reported. Only 4% of those who expected drug dog presence chose not to carry or consume drugs. One-quarter (26%) of those who reported an encounter were stopped by police and 4% were searched (bodily/bag search). DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSION: Most participants anticipated drug dog presence at festivals, however, were not deterred from carrying or consuming drugs. Some reported adaptations to avoid detection may increase drug-related health, social and legal harms. Our study suggests drug dog presence at festivals does not deter carriage/use of illegal drugs, and echoes concerns regarding the efficacy and appropriateness of this policing initiative.

Trends in methamphetamine use, markets and harms in Australia, 2003-2019.

INTRODUCTION: To describe trends in methamphetamine use, markets and harms in Australia from 2003 to 2019. METHODS: Data comprised patterns of use and price from sentinel samples of people who inject drugs and who use MDMA/other illicit stimulants and population-level amphetamine-related police seizures, arrests, hospitalisations, treatment episodes and deaths from approximately 2003 to 2019. Bayesian autoregressive time-series models were analysed for: no change; constant rate of change; and change over time differing in rate after one to three changepoints. Related indicators were analysed post hoc with identical changepoints. RESULTS: The percentage of people who inject drugs reporting weekly use increased from 2010 to 2013 onwards, while use among samples of people who regularly use ecstasy and other illicit stimulants decreased. Seizures and arrests rose steeply from around 2009/10 to 2014/15 and subsequently plateaued. Price increased ($15.9 [95% credible interval, CrI $9.9, $28.9] per point of crystal per year) from around 2009 to 2011, plateauing and then declining from around 2017. Hospitalisation rates increased steeply from around 2009/10 until 2015/16, with a small subsequent decline. Treatment also increased (19.8 episodes [95% CrI 13.2, 27.6] with amphetamines as the principal drug of concern per 100 000 persons per year) from 2010/11 onwards. Deaths involving amphetamines increased (0.285 per 100 000 persons per year) from 2012 until 2016. DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSIONS: These findings suggest that problematic methamphetamine use and harms escalated from 2010 to 2012 onwards in Australia, with continued demand and a sustained market for methamphetamine. [Correction added on 30 May 2022, after first online publication: In the Abstract under 'Discussion and Conclusions' 'onwards' has been added after … 2010 to 2012].

Changes in illicit drug use and markets with the COVID-19 pandemic and associated restrictions: findings from the Ecstasy and Related Drugs Reporting System, 2016-20.

AIMS: To describe (i) self-reported changes in drug use and (ii) trends in price, perceived availability, and perceived purity of illicit drugs, among people who regularly use ecstasy/ 3,4-methylenedioxymethamphetamine (MDMA) and other illicit stimulants in Australia following COVID-19 and associated restrictions. DESIGN: Annual interviews with cross-sectional sentinel samples conducted face-to-face in 2016-19 and via video conferencing or telephone in 2020. Data were collected via an interviewer-administered structured questionnaire. SETTING: Australian capital cities. PARTICIPANTS: Australians aged 16 years or older who used ecstasy/MDMA and other illicit stimulants on a monthly or more frequent basis and resided in a capital city, recruited via social media and word-of-mouth (n ~ 800 each year). MEASUREMENTS: Key outcome measures were self-reported illicit drug market indicators (price, purity and availability) and, in 2020 only, perceived change in drug use (including alcohol and tobacco) since March 2020 and reasons for this change. FINDINGS: For most drugs, participants reported either no change or a reduction in their use since COVID-19 restrictions were introduced. Ecstasy/MDMA was the drug most frequently cited as reduced in use (n = 552, 70% of those reporting recent use), mainly due to reduced opportunities for socialization. While market indicators were largely stable across most drugs, the odds of perceiving MDMA capsules as 'high' in purity decreased compared with 2016-19 [adjusted odds ratio (aOR) = 0.72, 95% confidence interval (CI) = 0.53-0.99], as did perceiving them as 'easy' to obtain (aOR = 0.42, CI = 0.26-0.67). The odds of perceiving cocaine and methamphetamine crystal as 'easy' to obtain also decreased (aOR = 0.67, CI = 0.46-0.96 and aOR = 0.12, CI = 0.04-0.41, respectively). CONCLUSIONS: After COVID-19-related restrictions were introduced in Australia, use of ecstasy/MDMA, related stimulants and other licit and illicit drugs mainly appeared to remain stable or decrease, primarily due to impediments to socialization.

Hepatitis C virus cascade of care among people who inject drugs in Australia: Factors associated with testing and treatment in a universal healthcare system.

BACKGROUND: Understanding factors associated with engagement across the hepatitis C virus (HCV) cascade of care (CoC) among people who inject drugs (PWID) is critical for developing targeted interventions to enhance engagement and further HCV elimination efforts. We describe the CoC among Australian PWID, and identify factors associated with engagement at each stage. METHODS: As part of the 2018 and 2019 Illicit Drug Reporting System, Australians who regularly inject drugs reported lifetime HCV antibody and RNA testing, treatment uptake and completion. Multivariable logistic regression identified characteristics associated with outcomes. RESULTS: Of 1499 participants, 87% reported antibody testing. Of those, 70% reported RNA testing, of whom 60% reported being RNA positive. Among those, 76% reported initiating treatment, 78% of whom completed. Incarceration history (adjusted odds ratio 1.90; 95% confidence interval 1.28-2.82), current opioid agonist treatment (OAT) (1.99; 1.14-3.47), and recent alcohol and other drug (AOD) counselling (2.22; 1.27-3.88) were associated with antibody testing. Incarceration history (1.42; 1.07-1.87), and current OAT (2.07; 1.51-2.86) were associated with RNA testing. Current OAT (1.92; 1.22-3.03) and recent AOD counselling (1.91; 1.16-3.13) were associated with treatment uptake. Methamphetamine as drug injected most often in the last month was associated with reduced odds of antibody (0.41; 0.25-0.66) and RNA testing (0.54; 0.40-0.74), compared to heroin. CONCLUSION: CoC engagement amongst Australian PWID is encouraging, with AOD service engagement associated with testing and treatment. Further efforts to reach those not service engaged, particularly those not receiving OAT or who predominantly inject methamphetamine, are needed to achieve HCV elimination targets.

Profile and correlates of colorimetric reagent kit use among people who use ecstasy/MDMA and other illegal stimulants in Australia.

BACKGROUND: Colorimetric reagent kits can provide information about the compounds present in drug samples. This study aimed to identify patterns and correlates of colorimetric reagent kit use, as well as behavioural outcomes of testing, amongst people who use illegal stimulants in a context that lacks permanent government-sanctioned drug checking services. METHODS: Australians residing in capital cities who reported regularly using ecstasy/MDMA and/or other illegal stimulants ≥monthly in the past six months were recruited via social media and word-of-mouth from April-July 2019 (N = 792). Participants were asked about testing the contents and/or purity of illegal drugs, and features of last colorimetric reagent kit use. Logistic regression identified correlates of last using a kit (referent: no use of drug checking technology to test drug contents/purity in the past year). RESULTS: Over one-third (36%) reported testing drug contents and/or purity; of this group, 86% had last used a colorimetric reagent kit. On the last occasion, 52% reported someone else had conducted testing; 58% said testing occurred <24 h before planned drug use; and 24% reported testing for quantity of a substance. Correlates of drug checking comprised: being younger, male, past six-month use of new psychoactive substances, accessing community-based health services for alcohol or other drug reasons, selling drugs for cash profit, obtaining information from peers who had tried the drug, and searching online for reports of the drug by stamp/appearance. The majority (84%) tested a substance they had been sold and/or given as MDMA; of these, 87% detected MDMA. Of those who expected and detected MDMA, 29% and 11% reported results to their peers and dealer, respectively. CONCLUSION: People who use ecstasy/MDMA and/or other illegal stimulants seek out objective information about substance contents. In countries that lack permanent government-sanctioned drug checking services, it is important to acknowledge that people already engage in drug checking but with suboptimal technologies and without tailored specialist advice and education.

Concordance between self-reported and current hepatitis C virus infection status in a sample of people who inject drugs in Sydney and Canberra, Australia.

INTRODUCTION: Awareness of hepatitis C virus (HCV) status among people who inject drugs is critical to ensure linkage to care and reduce transmission risk. Testing pathways, confusion about results and possible reinfection raise potential for discordance between perceived and actual HCV status among people who inject drugs. We evaluated self-reported and serologically confirmed HCV status concordance among a sample of Australian people who inject drugs. METHODS: Data were collected in May-June 2018 from participants in Canberra and Sydney, Australia, who had injected drugs at least monthly in the past 6 months. Participants completed a structured interview assessing self-reported HCV status and provided a dried blood spot sample for HCV RNA testing. RESULTS: Of 103 participants, 95% self-reported ever receiving antibody testing, 58% of whom reported having received RNA testing. Seventy-three percent of participants reported never having been told that they had HCV, 18% reported current infection and 9% did not know their current status. According to dried blood spot RNA testing, 20% were currently infected. Over a quarter of the sample (28%, n = 29) did not accurately report their HCV status, half of whom were unaware of a current infection. DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSIONS: With over one-quarter of the sample in our study not accurately reporting their current HCV status, our findings reinforce the importance of regular testing for active infection, and the need for improved health literacy on HCV antibody and RNA test results, HCV status post-treatment and reinfection risk.

Association Between Opioid Agonist Therapy and Testing, Treatment Uptake, and Treatment Outcomes for Hepatitis C Infection Among People Who Inject Drugs: A Systematic Review and Meta-analysis.

BACKGROUND: People who inject drugs (PWID) experience barriers to accessing testing and treatment for hepatitis C virus (HCV) infection. Opioid agonist therapy (OAT) may provide an opportunity to improve access to HCV care. This systematic review assessed the association of OAT and HCV testing, treatment, and treatment outcomes among PWID. METHODS: Bibliographic databases and conference presentations were searched for studies that assessed the association between OAT and HCV testing, treatment, and treatment outcomes (direct-acting antiviral [DAA] therapy only) among PWID (in the past year). Meta-analysis was used to pool estimates. RESULTS: Of 9877 articles identified, 22 studies conducted in Australia, Europe, North America, and Thailand were eligible and included. Risk of bias was serious in 21 studies and moderate in 1 study. Current/recent OAT was associated with an increased odds of recent HCV antibody testing (4 studies; odds ratio (OR), 1.80; 95% confidence interval [CI], 1.36-2.39), HCV RNA testing among those who were HCV antibody-positive (2 studies; OR, 1.83; 95% CI, 1.27-2.62), and DAA treatment uptake among those who were HCV RNA-positive (7 studies; OR, 1.53; 95% CI, 1.07-2.20). There was insufficient evidence of an association between OAT and treatment completion (9 studies) or sustained virologic response following DAA therapy (9 studies). CONCLUSIONS: OAT can increase linkage to HCV care, including uptake of HCV testing and treatment among PWID. This supports the scale-up of OAT as part of strategies to enhance HCV treatment to further HCV elimination efforts.

Profile and correlates of injecting-related injuries and diseases among people who inject drugs in Australia.

INTRODUCTION: People who inject drugs (PWID) commonly experience harms related to their injecting, many of which are consequences of modifiable drug use practices. There is currently a gap in our understanding of how certain injecting-related injuries and diseases (IRID) cluster together, and socio-demographic and drug use characteristics associated with more complex clinical profiles. METHOD: Surveys were conducted with 902 Australian PWID in 2019. Participants provided information regarding their drug use, and past month experience of the following IRID: artery injection, nerve damage, skin and soft tissue infection, thrombophlebitis, deep vein thrombosis, endocarditis, septic arthritis, osteomyelitis, and septicaemia. We performed a latent class analysis, grouping participants based on reported IRID and ran a class-weighted regression analysis to determine variables associated with class-membership. RESULTS: One-third (34 %) of the sample reported any IRID. A 3-class model identified: 1) no IRID (73 %), moderate IRID (21 %), and 3) high IRID (6%) clusters. Re-using one`s own needles was associated with belonging to the high IRID versus moderate IRID class (ARRR = 2.38; 95 % CI = 1.04-5.48). Other factors, including daily injecting and past 6-month mental health problems were associated with belonging to moderate and high IRID classes versus no IRID class. CONCLUSION: A meaningful proportion of PWID reported highly complex IRID presentations distinguished by the presence of thrombophlebitis and associated with greater re-use of needles. Increasing needle and syringe coverage remains critical in addressing the harms associated with injecting drug use and expanding the capacity of low-threshold services to address less severe presentations might aid in reducing IRID amongst PWID.

Use of alcohol swabs to clean injecting sites among people who regularly inject drugs in Australia.

INTRODUCTION AND AIMS: Cleaning drug injection sites with alcohol swabs prior to injecting reduces risk of abscesses and other skin and soft tissue infections (SSTI). Better understanding of swabbing behaviours can inform interventions to improve injecting hygiene. We aimed to determine the socio-demographic, drug use and injecting risk exposure correlates of swabbing prior to injecting and reasons for not swabbing. DESIGN AND METHODS: The Illicit Drug Reporting System recruited participants who had injected drugs at least monthly in the past six months in June-July 2017 from all Australian capital cities via needle and syringe programs and word-of-mouth. A structured interview was used to collect information on drug use and related behaviour, as well as swabbing practices. Logistic regression was used to identify factors associated with not swabbing at last injection. RESULTS: Of 853 respondents, one-quarter (26%) reported that they did not swab prior to their last injection. In adjusted analyses, crystal methamphetamine as the last drug injected, past month receptive or distributive syringe sharing, and past month re-use of one's own needle were significantly associated with not swabbing at last injection. Among participants who did not swab at last injection, swabbing was frequently considered unnecessary and a small number disliked using alcohol swabs. DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSIONS: Efforts are needed to increase awareness of the importance of injecting hygiene in preventing SSTI. Interventions to increase swabbing should be included as part of a wider package of injecting hygiene education, particularly in light of associations with receptive and/or distributive syringe sharing.