Evaluating the effect of the initiative 'Caring for the Newborn and the Mother at Home' in Mexico.

OBJECTIVE: The WHO and UNICEF recommend home visits to improve health outcomes for mothers and newborns. We evaluated the effect of home visits by community volunteers during pregnancy and postpartum on breast-feeding practices, women's knowledge about benefits, beliefs and myths of breast-feeding, obstetric and neonatal warning signs, preparation for childbirth and initial care for newborns, and diarrhoea and respiratory diseases in children. DESIGN: Community quasi-experimental design. We estimated difference-in-difference models with fixed effects at the community level weighted by propensity score and investigated implementation barriers through focus groups and semi-structured interviews. SETTING: Poor rural communities in Mexico; 48 intervention and 29 control. PARTICIPANTS: Baseline and follow-up information were reported from two independent cross-sectional samples of women with babies aged between 6 and 18 months (baseline: 292 control, 320 intervention; follow-up: 292 control, 294 intervention). RESULTS: The intervention increased reports of exclusive breast-feeding in the first 6 months by 24·4 percentage points (pp) (95 % CI: 13·4, 35·4), mothers' knowledge of obstetric warning signs by 23·4 pp (95 % CI: 9·2, 37·5) and neonatal warning signs by 26·2 pp (95 % CI: 15·2, 37·2) compared to the control group. A non-linear dose-response relation with the number of home visits was found. Diarrhoea and respiratory diseases among children decreased in the intervention v. control group but were not statistically significant. CONCLUSIONS: Home visits should be implemented as a complementary strategy to the provision of prenatal and postnatal care in rural communities due to their potential positive effects on the health of mothers and their children.

Parity, lactation, and long-term weight change in Mexican women.

One post-partum behaviour that may be protective against post-partum weight retention and long-term weight gain among women of reproductive age is lactation because of its potential role in resetting maternal metabolism after pregnancy. However, most of the evidence focuses on weight retention at 6, 12, or 24 months post-partum, and data beyond 2 years after birth are sparse, and findings are inconclusive. Therefore, our aim was to assess the association of parity and mean duration of lactation per child with long-term weight change in Mexican women. We assessed the association of parity and mean duration of lactation per child with long-term weight change in 75,421 women from the Mexican Teachers' Cohort. Several multivariable regression models were fit to assess these associations. We also examined the non-linear association between duration of lactation and weight change using restricted cubic splines. We found that parous women (≥4 children) gained 2.81 kg more (95% CI [2.52, 3.10]) than did nulliparous women. The association between mean duration of lactation per child and weight change appeared to be non-linear. Women who breastfed on average 3-6 months per child had lower gain weight (-1.10, 95% CI [-1.58, -0.47 kg]) than had women who did not breastfeed. This association was linear up to 6 months of lactation per child. Our findings suggest that parity alters weight-gain trajectory in women and that lactation could reduce this alteration. These findings are important in the prevention of excessive weight gain through reproductive years and their future health implications.

An analysis of stakeholder networks to support the breastfeeding scale-up environment in Mexico.

Little information exists on how to garner political commitment to strengthen large-scale breastfeeding policies and programmes by targeting key decision makers. The present study aims to map and describe the influence of stakeholders involved in breastfeeding policy and programming and identify opportunities to strengthen the breastfeeding-friendly environment in Mexico. A total of nine key informants from seventeen stakeholder organisations were selected based on their in-depth knowledge of the breastfeeding environment in Mexico and were individually interviewed using Net-Map methodology. This participatory interview technique combines stakeholder mapping, social network analysis and influence mapping to identify relevant stakeholders. Participants identified a total of fifty-five stakeholders shaping breastfeeding programmes and policies through four domains of influence: commands (n 32 stakeholders), dissemination (n 40), funding (n 35) and technical assistance (n 37). The Federal Ministry of Health emerged as the most influential stakeholder of breastfeeding policy and programming decisions in Mexico among all domains of influence. The Ministry of Finance and Public Credit as well as the National Institute of Public Health were identified as additional key stakeholders providing funding and technical assistance to the Federal Ministry of Health, respectively. Engaging identified key stakeholders can generate a multisectoral commitment to breastfeeding and strengthen the breastfeeding-friendly environment in Mexico.

Content analysis of media coverage of breastfeeding in Mexico.

Media can be a powerful communication tool to promote breastfeeding programs, influence mother's breastfeeding behaviour, and generate support among stakeholders for breastfeeding. Yet, there is little information on how media coverage influences a country's breastfeeding enabling environment. This study addressed this gap by conducting a retrospective content analysis of documents published between January 1, 2017 and January 1, 2018 to analyse the media coverage related to breastfeeding in Mexico. Content analysis was based on the breastfeeding gear model and a strategic planning technique to identify strengths, weaknesses, opportunities, and threats for enabling the national breastfeeding environment. Media coverage of breastfeeding was more frequent in August (36% of all documents). The top three topics commonly covered by the media were advocacy events promoting breastfeeding, promotion campaigns, and changes in breastfeeding legislation and policy. In general, the media coverage focused on strengths of specific breastfeeding policies. There was limited news coverage of key factors that negatively influenced or threatened the breastfeeding environment. Findings support the need to design strategies to engage the media covering in more depth and breadth diverse aspects of breastfeeding protection, promotion, and support efforts in Mexico.

Lactation and maternal risk of diabetes: Evidence from the Mexican Teachers' Cohort.

One postpartum behaviour that may be protective against diabetes is lactation due to its potential role in resetting maternal metabolism after pregnancy. However, the role of lactation in maternal risk of diabetes has not been investigated in Latin American populations, where rates of breastfeeding are suboptimal and diabetes incidence is increasing. Therefore, our aim was to estimate the association between mean duration of lactation per child and maternal incidence of diabetes. We followed 66,573 women from the Mexican Teachers' Cohort free of diabetes at baseline. Incident diabetes was ascertained through triennial questionnaires and lactation history was asked in baseline questionnaire. We used Cox proportional hazards regression models to estimate the hazard ratio (HR) for diabetes by mean duration of lactation per child. We examined the dose-response association between lactation per child and diabetes with restricted cubic splines. We found that 3,168 incident cases of diabetes were diagnosed during 157,510 person years of follow-up. In comparison with women who did not breastfed, women with a mean lactation per child of 3 to <6 months and 6 to <12 months had HRs of 0.81 (95% CI [0.65, 0.99]) and 0.73 (95% CI [0.59, 0.91]), respectively (p for quadratic term 0.004). There was no further decline in risk of diabetes after ≥12 months of lactation per child. The dose-response association between lactation and diabetes was linear up to 9 months of lactation. Our findings suggest that lactation is associated with reduced incidence of diabetes, indicating considerable potential for diabetes prevention on a population level.

The Role of Public Nutrition Research Organizations in the Construction, Implementation and Evaluation of Evidence-Based Nutrition Policy: Two National Experiences in Mexico.

Malnutrition and poor diet are the largest risk factors responsible for the global burden of disease. Therefore, ending all forms of malnutrition by 2030 is a global priority. To achieve this goal, a key element is to design and implement nutrition policies based on the best available scientific evidence. The demand for evidence-based nutrition policies may originate directly from policymakers or through social actors. In both cases, the role of research institutions is to generate relevant evidence for public policy. The two key objects of analysis for the design of an effective policy are the nutrition conditions of the population and the policies and programs available, including the identification of delivery platforms and competencies required by personnel in charge of the provision of services (social response). In addition, systematic literature reviews about risk factors of malnutrition, as well as the efficacy and effectiveness of policy actions, lead to evidence-based policy recommendations. Given the multifactorial nature of malnutrition, the drivers and risk factors operate in several sectors (food and agriculture, health, education, and social development) and may be immediate, underlying or basic causes. This multilevel complexity should be considered when developing nutrition policy. In this article, we show two models for the evidence-based design of nutrition policies and programs that may be useful to academia and decision makers demonstrated by two examples of policy design, implementation and evaluation in Mexico.

The burden of suboptimal breastfeeding in Mexico: Maternal health outcomes and costs.

Longer duration of breastfeeding is associated with a lower risk of type 2 diabetes, breast and ovarian cancer, myocardial infarction, and hypertension diseases in women. Mexico has one of the lowest breastfeeding rates worldwide; therefore, estimating the disease and economic burden of such rates is needed to influence public policy. We considered suboptimal breastfeeding when fewer than 95% of parous women breastfeed for less than 24 months per child, according to the World Health Organization recommendations. We quantified the lifetime excess cases of maternal health outcomes, premature death, disability-adjusted life years, direct costs, and indirect costs attributable to suboptimal breastfeeding practices from Mexico in 2012. We used a static microsimulation model for a hypothetical cohort of 100,000 Mexican women to estimate the lifetime economic cost and disease burden of type 2 diabetes, breast and ovarian cancer, myocardial infarction, and hypertension in mothers, due to suboptimal breastfeeding, compared with an optimal scenario of 95% of parous women breastfeeding for 24 months. We expressed cost in 2016 USD. We used a 3% discount rate and tested in sensitivity analysis 0% and 5% discount rates. We found that the 2012 suboptimal scenario was associated with 5,344 more cases of all analysed diseases, 1,681 additional premature deaths, 66,873 disability-adjusted life years, and 561.94 million USD for direct and indirect costs over the lifetime of a cohort of 1,116 million Mexican women. Findings suggest that investments in strategies to enable more women to optimally breastfeed could result in important health and cost savings.

Violations of the International Code of Marketing of Breast-milk Substitutes in Mexico.

This study estimated the prevalence of violations of the International Code of Marketing of Breast-milk Substitutes (BMS) and subsequent resolutions of the World Health Assembly (Code) at health facilities, points of sale (POS), and on BMS labelling and media in Mexico. We carried out a cross-sectional survey among 693 mothers with children aged less than 24 months and 48 health providers at public and private health facilities in two states of Mexico. Observational assessment at 20 POS and the health facilities was conducted as well as an analysis of labels on BMS products for sale. Women attending public and private health facilities reported receiving free BMS samples in the previous 6 months (11.1%), and about 80% reported seeing BMS promotion in the mass media. Health providers reported contact with BMS manufacturer representatives in the previous 6 months (15.5%), and only 41.6% of the health providers had knowledge of the Code. BMS promotions were identified at nearly all POS. Analysis of 190 BMS labels showed that 30% included pictures/text idealizing the use of BMS, and all labels incorporated health and nutrition claims. Violations of the Code are prevalent within the health services, POS, and labelling of BMS products. The high percentage of health providers with no knowledge of the Code calls for action at national level to better disseminate and comply with the Code. A transparent, free from commercial influence, and continual monitoring system for Code compliance is needed, including a follow-up component on sanctions for contraventions of the Code.

Scaling Up Breastfeeding Programs in Mexico: Lessons Learned from the Becoming Breastfeeding Friendly Initiative.

BACKGROUND: Given the magnitude of the health and economic burden of inadequate breastfeeding practices in Mexico, there is an urgency to improve breastfeeding practices to increase the health and well-being of children and mothers. The Becoming Breastfeeding Friendly (BBF) Toolbox was recently developed to guide countries in assessing their readiness to and progress with scale-up of breastfeeding protection, promotion, and support and to develop policy recommendations to high-level decision makers. OBJECTIVE: The aim of this study was to document the BBF process in Mexico, which led to evidence-based recommendations for policymakers to improve breastfeeding protection, promotion, and support in the country. METHODS: We followed the BBF methodology. First, a group of experts, with the use of scientific and gray literature, face-to-face interviews, and their own experience, analyzed and assigned a score to each of the 8 gears from the BBF index and identified scaling-up gaps on the basis of the Breastfeeding Gear Model. Then, we developed and presented evidence-based recommendations to improve breastfeeding protection, promotion, and support. RESULTS: Mexico's BBF score was 1.4 out of a maximum total of 3 points, which indicates that there is a low to moderate scaling-up environment to protect, promote, and support breastfeeding. None of the gears were rated as "outstanding," and the legislation and policies gear was the only one rated as strong. CONCLUSIONS: The BBF initiative is a useful tool for assessing the environment for breastfeeding. The Mexican environment for breastfeeding is weak. On the basis of these results, it is strongly recommended to raise national awareness on breastfeeding, incorporate the Code of Marketing of Breastmilk Substitutes in the Mexican legislations, extend maternity leave to 6 mo, and strengthen evidence-based advocacy and hence the political will that is needed to secure stable funding and resources for a successful national strategy for the protection, promotion, and support of breastfeeding in Mexico.

Breastfeeding Mode and Risk of Breast Cancer: A Dose-Response Meta-Analysis.

BACKGROUND: Breastfeeding reduces women's risk of breast cancer. Since exclusive breastfeeding has a stronger hormonal effect, it could theoretically result in a greater reduction in breast cancer risk than any breastfeeding mode. No meta-analysis has examined breast cancer risk by breastfeeding mode. Research aim: The authors conducted a meta-analysis for breast cancer risk in parous women who breastfed exclusively or in any mode versus parous women who formula fed their infants, and they estimated the summary dose-response association by the accumulated duration of any breastfeeding mode. METHODS: A systematic review of studies published between 2005 and 2015 analyzing breastfeeding and breast cancer risk in women was conducted in PubMed and EBSCOhost. A meta-analysis ( n = 65 studies) with fixed effects (or random effects, if heterogeneity existed) was carried out stratified by breastfeeding mode and menopausal and parity status. A summary dose-response association was estimated using the generalized least-squares method. RESULTS: The summary relative risk (SRR) for breast cancer in parous women who breastfed exclusively was 0.72, 95% confidence interval (CI) [0.58, 0.90], versus parous women who had never breastfed. For parous women who breastfed in any mode, the SRR was lower in both premenopausal women (0.86, 95% CI [0.80, 0.93]) and postmenopausal women (0.89, 95% CI [0.83, 0.95]). There was no heterogeneity or publication bias. There is weak evidence of a difference between exclusive and any breastfeeding mode ( p = .08). The summary dose-response curve was nonlinear ( p < .001). CONCLUSION: Exclusive breastfeeding among parous women reduces the risk of breast cancer compared with parous women who do not breastfeed exclusively.

Mexican Children under 2 Years of Age Consume Food Groups High in Energy and Low in Micronutrients.

BACKGROUND: Mexico faces malnutrition problems in the child population. Analysis of food consumption in small children allows us to identify and propose strategies focused on feeding to improve their nutritional status. OBJECTIVE: We described the consumption of beverages and food groups in Mexican children <24 mo of age. METHODS: A cross-sectional study was carried out in 926 children aged <24 mo participating in the 2012 ENSANUT (National Health and Nutrition Study). Dietary information was obtained through 24-h recalls. The foods and beverages consumed were divided into 17 groups. Consumption was estimated in grams or milliliters, kilocalories per day, and percentage of energy (PE) per day. The percentage of consumers was calculated for each food group and stratified by age (<6, 6-11, and 12-23 mo) and by breastfeeding status (breastfed or not breastfed). Differences in the consumption of food groups were analyzed by breastfeeding status, area of residence (urban or rural), and socioeconomic status (SES) by using linear regression adjusted for age, breastfeeding status, and survey design. RESULTS: Only 35% of the children consumed breast milk. Infant formula was consumed by 48% in children aged <6 mo and by 33% in children 6-11 mo old. More than 35% of the children aged 6-11 and 12-23 mo and 12% of children <6 mo old consumed nondairy sugar-sweetened beverages. Legumes and seeds and maize-based preparations contributed a higher PE in rural areas (3.4% and 1.9%, respectively) than in urban areas (11.1% and 6.4%, respectively) (P < 0.05). Children from the lowest SES category consumed less PE from cereals other than maize (2.4%) and more from maize-based preparations (10.2%) than did the middle (4.9% from other cereals and 8.0% from maize) and high (6.0% from other cereals and 4.5% from maize) SES categories (P < 0.05). CONCLUSION: Mexican children <24 mo of age do not consume a diet that meets recommendations, which is consistent with the high prevalence of malnutrition in Mexico.

Overview of the Dietary Intakes of the Mexican Population: Results from the National Health and Nutrition Survey 2012.

BACKGROUND: Mexico is facing the double burden of malnutrition: stunting and micronutrient deficiencies in young children, iron deficiency in pregnant women, and widespread obesity across age groups. OBJECTIVE: The aim was to summarize and discuss findings published in this supplement on dietary intakes and the eating habits of the Mexican population. METHODS: A 24-h recall questionnaire that used the multiple-pass method with a repeated measure in a fraction of the sample was applied in a nationally representative sample. We estimated mean intakes and percentages of inadequacy for macronutrients and micronutrients; mean intakes and percentages of the population who adhere to dietary recommendations for food groups; sources of added sugars; intakes of discretionary foods by mealtime, place, and activity; and mean dietary intakes in children <2 y old. RESULTS: Infant formula was consumed by almost half of infants aged <6 mo and sugar-sweetened beverages were consumed by two-thirds of children aged 12-23 mo. In the different age groups, a high proportion of the population had excessive intakes of added sugars (58-85%) and saturated fats (54-92%), whereas a high prevalence of insufficient intakes was found for fiber (65-87%), vitamin A (8-70%), folates (13-69%), calcium (26-88%), and iron (46-89%). Discretionary foods (nonbasic foods high in saturated fats and/or added sugars) contributed 26% of the population's total energy intake, whereas only 1-23% met recommendations for legumes, seafood, fruit, vegetables, and dairy foods. CONCLUSIONS: High proportions of Mexicans consume diets that do not meet recommendations. Breastfeeding and complementary feeding diverged from recommendations, intakes of discretionary foods were high, and the prevalence of nutrient inadequacies and age groups not meeting intake recommendations of basic food groups were also high. The results are consistent with the high prevalence of the double burden of malnutrition and are useful to design food and nutrition policies.

Early consumption of liquids different to breast milk in Mexican infants under 1 year: results of the probabilistic National Health and Nutrition Survey 2012

Introduction: Studies on infant dietary intake do not generally focus on the types of liquids consumed. Objective: To document by age and breastfeeding status, the types of liquids present in the diet of Mexican children under 1 year of age (< 1 y) who participated in the National Health and Nutrition Survey 2012 (ENSANUT-2012). Methods: Analysis of the infant < 1 y feeding practices from the ENSANUT-2012 survey in non-breastfed (non-BF) and breastfed (BF) infants by status quo for the consumption of liquids grouped in: water, formula, fortified LICONSA milk, nutritive liquids (NL; thin cereal-based gruel with water or milk and coffee with milk) and non-nutritive liquids (non-NL) as sugared water, water-based drinks, tea, beans or chicken broth, aguamieland coffee. In this infants < 1 y we analyzed the not grouped consumption of liquids in the first three days of life (newborns) from the mother's recall. Percentage and confidence intervals (95% CI) were calculated adjusting for survey design. Statistical differences were analyzed by Z test. Results: We observed a high consumption of human milk followed by formula (56.7%) and water (51.1%) in infants under 6 months of age (< 6 mo). The proportion of non-BF infants consuming non-NL was higher than for BF infants (p < 0.05). More than 60% of older infants (6 mo and < 1 y) consumed formula and were non-BF. In newborns formula consumption was predominant, followed by tea or infusion and water. Conclusions: Non-breast milk liquids are present undesirably in Mexican infants' diet and non-NL are consumed earlier than NL, revealing inadequate early dietary practices.

The costs of inadequate breastfeeding of infants in Mexico.

BACKGROUND: Breastfeeding is vital for child survival, health, and development. Mexico has very low rates of breastfeeding and experienced a severe decrease in the prevalence of exclusive breastfeeding from 21% in 2006 to 14% in 2012. OBJECTIVE: The objective of the article was to estimate the pediatric costs of inadequate breastfeeding in Mexico associated with the following acute health conditions: respiratory infections, otitis media, gastroenteritis, necrotizing enterocolitis (NEC), and sudden infant death syndrome (SIDS). DESIGN: The authors estimated the economic costs of inadequate breastfeeding as follows: the sum of direct health care costs for diseases whose risk increases when infants are non-exclusively breastfed <6 mo or are not breastfed from ages 6 to <11 mo, lost future earnings due to premature infant death, and the costs of purchasing infant formula. Incidence cases were retrieved from national surveillance systems, except for NEC and SIDS, which were estimated from the literature. A sensitivity analysis was carried out to provide a range of costs based on different assumptions of the number of incident cases of all infant health outcomes examined. The model applied to the cohort of 1-y-old children born in 2012. RESULTS: The total annual costs of inadequate breastfeeding in Mexico for the studied cohort ranged from $745.6 million to $2416.5 million, where the costs of infant formula accounted for 11-38% of total costs. A range of 1.1-3.8 million reported cases of disease and from 933 to 5796 infant deaths per year for the diseases under study are attributed to inadequate infant breastfeeding practices; altogether these represent nearly 27% of the absolute number of episodes of such diseases. CONCLUSIONS: This study provides costs of inadequate breastfeeding that had not been quantified in Mexico. The costs presented in this article provide the minimum amount that the country should invest to achieve better breastfeeding practices.

Breastfeeding and maternal employment: results from three national nutritional surveys in Mexico.

To evaluate the association between maternal employment and breastfeeding (both duration and status) in Mexican mothers using data from three National Health and Nutrition Surveys conducted in 1999, 2006 and 2012. We analyzed data from the 1999 National Nutrition Survey, the 2006 National Nutrition and Health Survey, and the 2012 National Nutrition and Health Survey (NNS-1999, NHNS-2006 and NHNS-2012) on 5,385 mothers aged 12-49 years, with infants under 1 year. Multivariate logistic regression models were used to analyze the association between breastfeeding and maternal employment adjusted for maternal and infant's socio-demographic covariates. Maternal formal employment was negatively associated with breastfeeding in Mexican mothers with infants under 1 year. Formally employed mothers were 20 % less likely to breastfeed compared to non-formally employed mothers and 27 % less likely to breastfeed compared to unemployed mothers. Difference in median duration of breastfeeding between formally employed and unemployed mothers was 5.7 months for NNS-1999, 4.7 months for NNHS-2006 and 6.7 months for NNHS-2012 respectively (p < 0.05). In NHNS-2006 and NHNS-2012, health care access was associated with longer breastfeeding duration. Maternal employment has been negatively associated with breastfeeding in Mexican mothers of <1 year infants at least for the last 15 years. For Mexicans involved in policy design, implementation or modification, these data might offer robust evidence on this negative association, and can be used confidently as basis for conceiving a more just legislation for working lactating women.

[Infant feeding practices and deterioration of breastfeeding in Mexico]. / Prácticas de alimentación infantil y deterioro de la lactancia materna en México.

OBJECTIVE: To present data on infant and young child feeding practices (IYCFP) in Mexico from the 2012 National Health and Nutrition Survey (ENSANUT 2012) to support the development of public policy. POPULATION: Women 12-49y and children <2y. Indicators of IYCFP suggested by WHO were analyzed by geographic, socioeconomic, participation in food programs and health insurance variables. RESULTS: Median duration of breast-feeding: 10.2mo and 14.4% with exclusive breastfeeding (EBF) <6m. Breastfeeding deteriorated in most vulnerable groups. Decline in EBF<6m 2006-2012 was explained by increases in consumption of formula and other milks (4%) and water (4%). Three-quarters (74%) of 6-11mo infants had minimum food diversity, and it was lower in the most vulnerable. CONCLUSIONS: Complementary feeding improved but breastfeeding declined in Mexico. Promotion actions must be integral, coordinated, financed and evaluated, with Federal government leadership and should include the participation of various stakeholders.

[Stunting in Mexico in the last quarter century: analysis of four national surveys]. / Desnutrición crónica en México en el último cuarto de siglo: análisis de cuatro encuestas nacionales.

OBJECTIVE: To describe the magnitude, distribution, and trends of undernutrition and overweight from 1988 to 2006, and provide recommendations for their erradication. MATERIALS AND METHODS: Antrhopometric indicators of nutritional status in children <5 y from four surveys were analyzed. RESULTS: Despite its significant reduction in the study period, stunting remains as a public health problem, with the highest prevalences in indigenous population, the rural south and the lowest living conditions quintile. CONCLUSIONS: Several policies and programs have demonstrated effectiveness, but implementation challenges persist among the poorest population, particularly in indigenous households. Measures for improving the effectiveness of the nutrition policies and programs, particularly among the indigenous and poorest population, are provided, which include adjusting current programs according to the results of evaluations, and the implementation of policies that address the social determinants of undernutrition.

Desnutrición crónica en México en el último cuarto de siglo: análisis de cuatro encuestas nacionales / Stunting in Mexico in the last quarter century: analysis of four national surveys

Objetivo. Describir la magnitud, distribución y tendencias de la desnutrición y el sobrepeso en menores de 5 años de 1988 a 2012 y hacer recomendaciones para su erradicación. Material y métodos. Se analizaron indicadores antropométricos en menores de 5 años, de cuatro encuestas nacionales. Resultados. A pesar de haber tenido un notable descenso en el periodo estudiado, la desnutrición crónica persiste como problema de salud pública, con mayores prevalencias en la población indígena, las zonas rurales del sur y el quintil de menores condiciones de bienestar. Conclusiones. Diversas políticas y programas han mostrado efectividad aunque persisten retos de implementación entre la población más pobre, particularmente la indígena. Se recomiendan, por una parte, medidas para aumentar la efectividad de las políticas y programas actuales, sobre todo entre la población indígena y la más pobre, mediante el ajuste de los programas actuales, de acuerdo con los resultados de las evaluaciones y, por la otra, políticas de desarrollo social que atiendan los determinantes sociales de la desnutrición.

Objective. To describe the magnitude, distribution, and trends of undernutrition and overweight from 1988 to 2006, and provide recommendations for their erradication. Materials and methods. Antrhopometric indicators of nutritional status in children <5 y from four surveys were analyzed. Results. Despite its significant reduction in the study period, stunting remains as a public health problem, with the highest prevalences in indigenous population, the rural south and the lowest living conditions quintile. Conclusions. Several policies and programs have demonstrated effectiveness, but implementation challenges persist among the poorest population, particularly in indigenous households. Measures for improving the effectiveness of the nutrition policies and programs, particularly among the indigenous and poorest population, are provided, which include adjusting current programs according to the results of evaluations, and the implementation of policies that address the social determinants of undernutrition.

Prácticas de alimentación infantil y deterioro de la lactancia materna en México / Infant feeding practices and deterioration of breastfeeding in Mexico

Objetivo. Presentar prácticas de alimentación infantil (PAI) en México de la Encuesta Nacional Salud y Nutrición (ENSANUT 2012) y ofrecer información para el desarrollo de políticas públicas. Material y métodos. Encuesta con diseño probabilístico. Población: Mujeres de 12 a 49 años e hijos menores de 3 años. Cálculo de indicadores propuestos por OMS, por factores geográficos, socioeconómicos, pertenencia a programas y servicios de salud. Resultados. Mediana de duración lactancia de 10.2 meses y 14.4% con lactancia materna exclusiva (LME) en menores de 6 meses. Las PAI se deterioraron en grupos más vulnerables. El descenso de LME en menores de 6 meses entre 2006 y 2012 se explica por el aumento en consumo de fórmulas y otras leches (4%) y agua (4%). El 74% de niños de 6 a 11 meses tuvo diversidad mínima alimentaria, menor (<60%) en grupos más vulnerables. Conclusiones. En México, la alimentación complementaria mejoró pero la lactancia se deterioró. Su promoción, protección y apoyo deben ser integrales, coordinados, financiados y evaluados con liderazgo del Gobierno Federal y participación de diversos actores.

Objective. To present data on infant and young child feeding practices (IYCFP) in Mexico from the 2012 National Health and Nutrition Survey (ENSANUT 2012) to support the development of public policy. Materials and methods. Population: Women 12-49y and children <2y. Indicators of IYCFP suggested by WHO were analyzed by geographic, socioeconomic, participation in food programs and health insurance variables. Results. Median duration of breast-feeding: 10.2mo and 14.4% with exclusive breastfeeding (EBF) <6m. Breastfeeding deteriorated in most vulnerable groups. Decline in EBF<6m 2006-2012 was explained by increases in consumption of formula and other milks (4%) and water (4%). Three-quarters (74%) of 6-11mo infants had minimum food diversity, and it was lower in the most vulnerable. Conclusions. Complementary feeding improved but breastfeeding declined in Mexico. Promotion actions must be integral, coordinated, financed and evaluated, with Federal government leadership and should include the participation of various stakeholders.

Diferenciación de la situación nutricional del preescolar, según niveles socioeconómicos, en una zona marginal / Nutritional status differentiation in preschool children according to socioeconomic levels in a slum area

El presente artículo da cuenta de un estudio en el que se pretendió validar una nueva metodología para diferenciar niveles socioeconómicos en una población marginal urbana, y correlacionar cada uno de los niveles con el grado de desnutrición de los preescolares, mediante el uso de las clasificaciones de Gómez y de Waterlow, respectivamente. Los indicadores socioeconómicos seleccionados fueron: vivienda, ocupación y escolaridad del jefe de familia, número de miembros por habitación, gasto semanal per capita en alimentación, y tenencia de algunos artículos del hogar. En base a los indicadores mencionados, se construyó una escala de puntuación y se obtuvieron tres niveles socioeconómicos, alto, medio y bajo; del total de 187 familias seleccionadas, 46 quedaron en el nivel alto, 72 en el nivel medio y 69 en el bajo. Se determinó el peso y la talla de los preescolares; asimismo, con el objeto de establecer la correlación de los datos antropométricos con los niveles sociales, y determinar si dichos niveles realmente permitían diferencias los grados de desnutrición, se utilizaron dos tipos de clasificación de estado nutricional. Los resultados revelaron diferencias significativas al analizar el peso para la edad y el peso para la talla en los niños de 24 a 47 meses y a la población preescolar total, o sea, de 12 a 59 meses de edad, tanto con la clasificación de Gómez, como con la de Waterlow (P<0.001). Se concluye que la escala de puntuación para determinar niveles socioeconómicos fue lo suficientemente sensible para distinguir los grados de desnutrición de los preescolares, especialmente al analizar la población global; quizá no resultó significativo en algunos de los grupos etarios por lo reducido del número. Se recomienda continuar utilizando la clasificación de Gómez, en especial en estudios de corte transversal y la de Waterlow, por su rápida difusión en el mundo