Effects of out-of-school physical activity interventions based on self-determination theory in children and adolescents: A systematic review and meta-analysis.

OBJECTIVE: This systematic review and meta-analysis aimed to examine the effects of out-of-school physical activity (PA) interventions, based on Self-Determination Theory (SDT), on basic psychological needs (BPN), motivation toward PA, and PA levels in youths. DESIGN: Systematic review and meta-analyses. METHOD: We searched for intervention studies examining the effects of PA interventions based on SDT implemented outside the school published in English and Spanish in six electronic databases up to January 2022. RESULTS: Outcomes of interest were BPN, motivation, and PA levels. In total, nine studies were included in this review. Seven individual meta-analyses were conducted for each variable, revealing nonsignificant clustered effects for the outcomes autonomy satisfaction (g = 0.12, 95% CI [-0.31, 0.55]), competence satisfaction (g = 0.02, 95% CI [-0.28, 0.32]), relatedness satisfaction (g = 0.13, 95% CI [-0.43, 0.68]), autonomous motivation (g = 0.15, 95% CI [-0.38, 0.67]), controlled motivation (g = 0.12, 95% CI [-0.32, 0.55]), amotivation (g = -0.36, 95% CI [-0.88, 0.16]), and PA behavior (g = 0.02, 95% CI [-0.08, 0.12]). CONCLUSION: Meta-analyses suggest that out-of-school PA interventions based on SDT are not effective in increasing levels of needs satisfaction, types of motivation, and PA levels.

A Multiday Professional Padel Tournament Impairs Sleep, Mental Toughness, and Reaction Time: A World Padel Tour Field Study.

This study aimed to assess, for the first time, how self-reported sleep, mental toughness, and reaction time are impacted by a professional padel tournament. In addition, we evaluated whether sex, age, and/or ranking play a role in this possible effect of a tournament on these variables. Twenty-three professional players (15 men, Mage = 24 ± 6 years; eight women, Mage = 21 ± 5 years) were evaluated on two occasions: (a) baseline, in a noncompetitive week and (b) postmeasure, the morning after an individual was eliminated from the tournament. The Pittsburgh Sleep Quality Index, the Mental Toughness Questionnaire, and the psychomotor vigilance task were used to evaluate the dependent variables. Wilcoxon tests or paired samples t tests were employed to assess the effect of participating in the tournament. To test correlations between variables, Pearson correlation coefficients (quantitative variables) or chi-square distributions (qualitative variables) were employed. Results showed that self-reported sleep (p < .01), mental toughness (p = .01), and reaction time (p = .04) were significantly impaired by the tournament. Exploring moderating variables, results showed that mental toughness did not correlate with sleep impairments (p > .05). In contrast, a nearly significant correlation between sleep impairments and higher reaction times was found (p = .066). No significant effects of age, sex, and ranking were observed. In conclusion, participating in a padel competition impairs the self-reported sleep, mental toughness, and reaction time of professional padel players. A trend toward a significant correlation between the competition-related impairment in sleep and reaction time was observed, whereas age, ranking, and sex were not found to be moderators of any of these impairments.

The relationship among intra-group communication, transactive memory systems, collective efficacy and team performance: A structural equation model analysis with Elite Footballers.

We explored the relationship among intra-group communication, collective efficacy, transactive memory systems and team performance. One hundred and seventy soccer players, aged between 14 and 38 years (M = 18.35, SD = 4.71), from eight national teams participated in this study. Data were analyzed using structural equation modeling. First, our analysis revealed that intra-group communication was positively related to transactive memory systems. Second, transactive memory systems was positively associated with collective efficacy and team performance. Third, our analysis revealed that collective efficacy mediated the relationship between transactive memory systems and performance. Altogether, our findings advance the literature by highlighting the relationship among intra-group communication, collective efficacy, transactive memory systems and team performance team processes. From an applied perspective, our findings suggest that systemic interventions simultaneously targeting various team constructs are important to enhance team functioning.Highlights The relationship among intra-group communication, collective efficacy, transactive memory systems and team performance were examined in national football teams.A cross-sectional design was developed and the data were analyzed using structural equation modeling.Players perceptions of high intra-group communication were positively associated with the development of transactive memory systems.Higher levels of transactive memory systems and collective efficacy were associated with better team performance.

Effects of the inclusion of physical activity in secondary education academic classes on educational indicators and health markers: rationale and methods of the ACTIVE CLASS study.

Background: Increasing physical activity (PA) levels and reducing sedentary behaviors in children and adolescents is a need, especially in schools. Active breaks and physically active learning are examples of two emerging methodologies that have been shown to be effective in increasing PA levels and additionally produce improvements in children's educational markers. However, the evidence in adolescents is very limited. This paper presents the design, measurements, and interventions implemented in the ACTIVE CLASS study, whose objectives are: (i) evaluate the effects of two interventions on PA levels, sedentary time, health-related physical fitness academic indicators, cognition, and markers of psychological health among secondary education students; (ii) evaluate teachers' and students' experiences about the implementation of these the two school-based PA intervention. Methods: A randomized controlled study is conducted with a total of 292 students aged 12-14 years old from six schools (7th and 8th grade) in Spain (three in Cadiz and three in Caceres). One school from each study provinces is randomly assigned to either the active break intervention group, the physically active learning intervention group, or the control group. The interventions have a duration of 16 weeks. Nine main measurement categories are assessed: PA and sedentary time, health-related physical fitness, academic indicators, cognition, psychological health, motivational variables, dietary patterns, sociodemographic characteristics, as well as qualitative information through semi-structured individual interviews and focus groups. Three independent measurements of evaluation are distinguished: pre-intervention, post-intervention (week 16) and retention measurement (4 weeks after the intervention). For quantitative variables, descriptive, correlational, regression and repeated measures ANOVA will be applied. Discussion: To the best of our knowledge, the ACTIVE CLASS study is the first of its kind in Spain to evaluate the effects of incorporating active breaks and physically active learning in secondary education. In addition, this project provides important information on the effects of two school-based PA intervention arms on educational variables and health markers in adolescents. This will provide valuable and innovative training to the educational community, enabling them to implement teaching methodologies that have the potential to enhance academic performance and improve the quality of life for their students. Clinical trial registration: clinicaltrials.gov, NCT05891054.

Using the Conceptual Framework for Examining Sport Teams to Understand Group Dynamics in Professional Soccer.

(1) Background: The aim of this study is to propose a model of the interactions of group dynamics using the conceptual framework to examine sports teams; (2) Methods: The hypothesized model includes measures of group structure (authentic leadership, perceived justice, coaching competency, role clarity/ambiguity, and role conflict), group cohesion (cohesion and team conflict), and group processes (collective efficacy and transactive memory systems). Participants were 581 professional soccer players (M = 24.51, SD = 3.73; 356 males and 225 females) who completed a multisection questionnaire assessing group dynamics variables; (3) Results: The results show that coach leadership predicts coaching competency and perceived justice, and both competency and justice predict role ambiguity and role conflict. Furthermore, role ambiguity and role conflict predict group cohesion and team conflict, whereas group cohesion and team conflict both predict the transactive memory system. Finally, collective efficacy is predicted by the transactive memory system; (4) Conclusions: The results suggest the importance of coach behavior (leadership, justice, and competency) and group processes to improving team functioning in a professional sports context.

Are Teams Whose Players Are More Committed To the Team More Resilient? the Role of Intra-Group Conflict.

The study aimed to analyze the relationship between commitment to the team and team resilience factors (characteristics of resilience and vulnerability under pressure), and to examine whether the task and social intra-group conflict act as mediators between commitment to the team and team resilience factors. One hundred seventy (170) male soccer players (16-38 years; M = 18.35; SD = 4.72) of the national teams of Argentina, Costa Rica, and Mexico participated in the study. The path analytic model was used to test mediating pathways. First, the results revealed that commitment to the team was positively related to characteristics of resilience and negatively to vulnerability under pressure. Second, bootstrap mediation analysis showed that athletes' perceptions of the task and social intra-group conflict mediated the association between their perception of commitment to the team and team resilience factors. Findings provide initial evidence for a link between commitment to the team and team resilience in national teams and also suggest that intra-group conflict can improve the association between commitment to the team and team resilience. Therefore, the main conclusion of this study is that practioners should promote players' commitment to the team and avoid intra-group conflicts within teams to have a resilient team that copes with problems more easily.

How Mentally Fatiguing Are Consecutive World Padel Tour Matches?

It is currently unknown whether mental fatigue occurs throughout a WPT competition and whether consecutive matches affect how mentally fatiguing a match is perceived to be. The objective was to quantify the effects of successive professional matches on mental fatigue. A total of 14 professional players (9 males, Mage = 25, 5 females, Mage = 21) participated during qualified rounds of a WPT with three eliminatory matches: Match 1 (morning) and 2 (afternoon) on day 1 (n = 14), Match 3 (morning) on day 2 (n = 6). Mental fatigue and motivation, with scales, and reaction time, with a 3-min Psychomotor Vigilance Test, were measured at two time intervals (pre and post matches (<30 min)). To analyze the evolution of these variables, a two-way repeated measures MANOVA was performed. An increase in mental fatigue from pre- to post-matches was observed (p < 0.01), with an accumulation of mental fatigue between matches played on day 1 (p < 0.01), maximizing the mental fatigue perceived during Match 2. Padel matches impair motivation and reaction time (p = 0.04), without effects between successive matches, which reinforced the idea that mental fatigue may impair padel performance (i.e., reaction time). Coaches should use training interventions and recovery strategies to counteract/avoid the accumulation of mental fatigue during professional tournaments.

Mental Load and Fatigue Assessment Instruments: A Systematic Review.

Mental load and fatigue are important causes of performance decreases and accidents in different activities. However, a robust systematic review, detailing the instruments used to quantify them, is currently lacking. The purpose of this study was to summarize and classify by derivations the validated instruments used to quantify mental load and fatigue. The most representative electronic databases in the scope of this review, PubMed, WOS, Scopus, SPORTDiscus, and PsycINFO (until September 2020) were searched for studies that included instruments to analyze mental load and fatigue. The quality of the selected studies was scored using a quality assessment checklist. A total of 40 papers were included. Most of the papers used subjective scales (75%) to quantify mental load and fatigue, with a small presence of behavioral (n = 5) and objective techniques (n = 5). Less is known about the analysis of mental load and fatigue using a combination of derivations. Despite the high cost and complexity of objective techniques, research that applies these measures is important for further analysis of brain processes in mental load and fatigue. The design of a battery of tests that include the three types of derivations also seems necessary.

Validación al español de la Escala de Comunicación Efectiva en el Fútbol

El objetivo de la presente investigación era traducir al español y validar la Escala de Comunicación Efectiva en Deportes de Equipo (SECTS-2S). Para ello, se realizaron dos estudios. El Estudio 1 contó con 276 jugadores de fútbol de género masculino (88.40%) y femenino (11.60%) con un rango de edad de 16-42 años (M = 18.42; DT = 2.71). Los resultados mostraron una estructura factorial con tres factores de primer orden (aceptación, conflicto negativo y distinción) y con adecuada consistencia interna (α y ώ = .70-.79). En el Estudio 2, participaron 453 jugadores de fútbol de ambos géneros (89.40% masculino y 10.60% femenino) con edades en el rango de 16-39 años (M = 20.86; DT = 3.56). Nuevamente, se obtuvieron índices de ajuste aceptables con una estructura compuesta por tres factores de primer orden y con valores adecuados de consistencia interna para cada factor (α y ώ = .75-.83). Además, se comprobó que la SECTS-2S mostraba una adecuada validez discriminante y nomológica con la variable de cohesión de grupo (p < .05). Por último, se encontró que la escala SECTS-2S es invariante con respecto al nivel competitivo de los jugadores. Se concluye que la SECTS-2S es una herramienta válida y fiable para medir la comunicación intra-equipo en el fútbol.

The aim of this investigation was to translate and validate the Effective Communication Scale in Team Sports into Spanish (SECTS-2S). In Study 1 participated 276 male (88.40 %) and female (11.60%) soccer players, with aged between 16-42 (M = 18.42; SD = 2.71). Results show a three first-order factors structure (acceptance, negative conflict, and distinctiveness) and adequate internal consistency were found. Study 2 involved 453 soccer players of both genders (89.40 % male and 10.60% female) and aged between 16-39 years (M = 20.86; SD = 3.56). Likewise, adequate values in the factorial structure with a three-factor structure and internal consistency were obtained (α and ώ = .75-.83). In addition, the SECTS-2S showed adequate discriminatory and nomological validity with the group cohesion variable (p < .05). Finally, it was shown that the instrument was invariant with respect to the competitive level of players. Thus, the SECTS-2S is a valid and reliable questionnaire to measure intra-team communication in team sports.

Validación al español de la Escala de Comunicación Efectiva en el Fútbol / Spanish validation of the Effective Communication Scale in Soccer

Resumen El objetivo de la presente investigación era traducir al español y validar la Escala de Comunicación Efectiva en Deportes de Equipo (SECTS-2S). Para ello, se realizaron dos estudios. El Estudio 1 contó con 276 jugadores de fútbol de género masculino (88.40%) y femenino (11.60%) con un rango de edad de 16-42 años (M = 18.42; DT = 2.71). Los resultados mostraron una estructura factorial con tres factores de primer orden (aceptación, conflicto negativo y distinción) y con adecuada consistencia interna (α y ώ = .70-.79). En el Estudio 2, participaron 453 jugadores de fútbol de ambos géneros (89.40% masculino y 10.60% femenino) con edades en el rango de 16-39 años (M = 20.86; DT = 3.56). Nuevamente, se obtuvieron índices de ajuste aceptables con una estructura compuesta por tres factores de primer orden y con valores adecuados de consistencia interna para cada factor (α y ώ = .75-.83). Además, se comprobó que la SECTS-2S mostraba una adecuada validez discriminante y nomológica con la variable de cohesión de grupo (p < .05). Por último, se encontró que la escala SECTS-2S es invariante con respecto al nivel competitivo de los jugadores. Se concluye que la SECTS-2S es una herramienta válida y fiable para medir la comunicación intra-equipo en el fútbol.

Abstract The aim of this investigation was to translate and validate the Effective Communication Scale in Team Sports into Spanish (SECTS-2S). In Study 1 participated 276 male (88.40 %) and female (11.60%) soccer players, with aged between 16-42 (M = 18.42; SD = 2.71). Results show a three first-order factors structure (acceptance, negative conflict, and distinctiveness) and adequate internal consistency were found. Study 2 involved 453 soccer players of both genders (89.40 % male and 10.60% female) and aged between 16-39 years (M = 20.86; SD = 3.56). Likewise, adequate values in the factorial structure with a three-factor structure and internal consistency were obtained (α and ώ = .75-.83). In addition, the SECTS-2S showed adequate discriminatory and nomological validity with the group cohesion variable (p < .05). Finally, it was shown that the instrument was invariant with respect to the competitive level of players. Thus, the SECTS-2S is a valid and reliable questionnaire to measure intra-team communication in team sports.

How many leaders does it take to lead a sports team? The relationship between the number of leaders and the effectiveness of professional sports teams.

This study aimed to analyze the number of task, social and external athlete leaders within sports teams, and to examine the effectiveness of different leadership structures in male and female teams. The participants were 317 male and 214 female soccer players belonging to 18 teams playing in the third highest male division and to 13 teams playing in the highest female division in Spain, respectively. First, we identified the leadership structure in each team (i.e., having zero, one, two or three leaders); second, we grouped the teams according to these leadership structures; and third, MANOVA was used to compare different leadership groups in terms of their effectiveness. The results demonstrated that: (a) the most common structure within the teams was to have one task leader, one social leader, and two external leaders; (b) shared leadership across and within leadership roles was seen as the most effective leadership structure for male and female teams; and (c) male teams showed more benefits when having more task and external leaders, while female teams experienced more benefits when having more task and social leaders on the team. Based on these findings, coaches can optimize their team's functioning by implementing a structure of shared leadership within their teams, both across and within the different leadership roles.

Effects of an intervention with teachers in the physical education context: A Self-Determination Theory approach.

Framed within Self-Determination Theory, the purpose of the present study was to test the effects of a training program with physical education (PE) teachers. Participants were 21 high school PE teachers (experimental group, n = 10; control group, n = 11), and their 836 students, aged 12 to 16 years. Teachers in the experimental group received a training program consisting of strategies to support autonomy, competence, and relatedness need satisfaction. A repeated measures ANCOVA was carried out for each dependent variable. After the intervention, students in the experimental group significantly increased their scores on autonomy support, relatedness support, autonomy satisfaction, autonomous motivation, controlled motivation, and intention to be physically active, as compared to the control group. These findings emphasize the utility of a training program with PE teachers to promote the students' psychological need satisfaction, and hence, self-determined motivation toward PE classes.

Adaptation and validation in Spanish of the Group Environment Questionnaire (GEQ) with professional football players.

BACKGROUND: This investigation presents two studies with the goal of adapting and validating a short version of the Group Environment Questionnaire in the Spanish sport context with professional players. METHOD: Study 1 used a sample of 377 male soccer players aged between 18 and 39 years ( M = 24.51, SD = 3.73), in a preliminary study using exploratory factor analysis. Study 2 used a sample of 604 professional male and female athletes, ages between 15 and 38 years ( M = 24.34, SD = 4.03). The data analyzed were collected at three moments of the season. For each measurement, we developed seven first- and second-order structures that were analyzed with confirmatory factor analysis. RESULTS: Study 1 indicated appropriate factorial validity (> .60) and internal consistency (> .70), with only Item 3 presenting a low factor loading (.11), so its drafting was modified in the next study. Study 2 revealed that the Spanish version of the GEQ has high levels of internal consistency (> .70) and acceptable fit index values in its original four first-order factor structure in all three measurements ( χ²/df = 4.39, CFI = .95, IFI = .95, RMSEA = .07, SRMR = .04, AIC = 271.09). Discriminant validity (from r = .45 to r = .72) and concurrent validity (from r = .21 to r = .60) also presented appropriate values. Lastly, we conducted analysis of invariance, confirming that the models established in the different measurements were invariant. CONCLUSIONS: The short 12-item adaptation of the GEQ to Spanish is a valid and reliable instrument to measure team cohesion in professional male and female soccer players.

Incidence of Parental Support and Pressure on Their Children's Motivational Processes towards Sport Practice Regarding Gender.

Grounded in Self-Determination Theory, structural equation modeling (SEM) with the aim of examining how parental support/pressure could influence their children´s motivational processes in sport was conducted, as well as the models´ differences in operability regarding gender. The sample size was 321 children ranging in age from 10 to 16 years old who were athletes from Extremadura, and 321 parents (included only the father or mother more involved with the sport of his or her child). 175 participants were male and 146 were female from individual (n = 130), and team sports (n=191). A questionnaire was conducted to assess parental perception of support/pressure and another questionnaire was conducted to measure satisfaction of basic psychological needs, type of motivation and enjoyment/boredom showed by their children towards sport practice. Results revealed that parental pressure negatively predicted satisfaction of the basic psychological needs. It also emerged as a strong positive predictor of intrinsic motivation and negative predictor of amotivation. Moreover, intrinsic motivation emerged as positive predictor of enjoyment and a negative predictor of boredom, whereas amotivation positively predicted boredom and negatively predicted enjoyment. Furthermore, results showed there were mean differences by gender: male athletes perceived greater parental pressure. Hence, it is necessary to decrease parental pressure towards their children in sport, with the aim of making them more motivated and enjoy, promoting positive consequences.

Perceived coach-created and peer-created motivational climates and their associations with team cohesion and athlete satisfaction: evidence from a longitudinal study.

In this longitudinal study, we examined the extent to which perceived coach- and peer-created motivational climates are associated with athlete-group cohesion and satisfaction with participation among Spanish soccer players competing in the Third National Division. Multilevel modelling analyses showed that perceived coach-created task climate was positively related to perceived cohesion and players' satisfaction with their participation within their team. Also, perceived peer-created task climate related positively to perceived cohesion. The results indicate the importance of considering peer-related aspects of the motivational climate in addition to considering the coach-related aspects of the motivational climate when examining motivational group dynamics in sport.