Ironic processes of concentration and suppression under pressure: A study on rifle shooting in Norwegian elite biathletes.

In rifle shooting, suppressing unwanted thoughts can backfire in one's performance, causing athletes to behave contrary to their desired intention and further deteriorate their performance. PURPOSE: This study examined how priming attentional and negative cues affected participants' shooting performances toward ironic error targets under cognitive load conditions in Stroop task across two experiments. METHODS: Semi-elite biathletes (Experiment 1, n = 10; Experiment 2, n = 9) participated in the study. The study used a within-subject quasi-experimental design, particularly a one-way repeated measures multivariate analysis of variance and a 2 × 2 fully repeated measures analysis of variance, to determine the participants' hit rates and shooting response times (RTs). In both experiments, the participants completed the reverse-Stroop-based target shooting performance under low- and high-cognitive load conditions while receiving frequent priming attentional and negative cues. RESULTS: The findings from Experiment 1 suggest that regulating repetitive priming attentional thoughts is efficacious in mitigating the likelihood of ironic performance errors and interference effects. The results of Experiment 2 show that repetitive priming negative cues resulted in negligible ironic error hit rates and slower RTs in target hits under high-cognitive load conditions. The Bayesian analyses provided evidence supporting the null hypotheses. CONCLUSION: Trying to control repetitive priming attentional and negative thoughts reduces ironic performance errors to a similar degree under cognitive load conditions among biathletes, regardless of interference effects. Further research is needed to determine the effectiveness of suppressing task-relevant negative instructions in reducing the likelihood of ironic performance errors under pressure.

The Effects of Avoiding Instructions Under Pressure: An Examination of the Volleyball Serving Task.

Wegner predicts that under pressure self-avoiding instructions not to perform in a certain manner will break down precisely where it is least desired that is the hypothesis of the present study. Specifically, the aim was to test the hypothesis that when instructed not to serve into a certain zone, ironic error would be more prevalent under pressure. Our sample comprised 43 female participants between the age of 13 and 16 (Mage = 14.51, SD = 1.35) who were active volleyball players (Mtraining years = 5.40, SD = 2.38). We measured the participants' psychophysiological indications of anxiety via the heart rate, heart rate variability as well as the self-reported Mental Readiness Form-3. To measure performance, we counted the number of target and non-target serving zones under different anxiety conditions. Participants scored +5 points for serving into the target zone, scored -5 points for serving to the out or hitting the net and 1 point for serving into the court except the target zone. A 2 (anxiety) × 3 (serving zone) fully repeated measures ANOVA revealed a significant anxiety x serving zone interaction F (2, 84) = 36.52, p < .001. When instructed not to serve in a certain zone, players' overall performance did not change across anxiety conditions t (42) = .68, p =.50. Results did not provide support for the Wegner's theory as expected, but instead revealed evidence for the Woodman et al.'s (2015) differentiation of ironic performance error. The results demonstrate that the theory of ironic processes may account for practical instruction-based solution for reducing the susceptibility to ironic errors in the serving type of task in volleyball.

Efecto agudo de diferentes ejercicios sobre la variabilidad del ritmo cardíaco de jugadores jóvenes de fútbol / Acute effect of different trainings in the variability of the heart rate of young football players / Efeito agudo de diferentes exercícios sobre a variabilidade do ritmo cardíaco de jogadores jovens de futebol

Objective: To determine the time-domain (SDNN, RMSSD) of heart rate variability (HRV) and heart rate (HR) of young football players in different training sessions. Method: 15 football players voluntarily participated (mean age = 15.5 ± 0.5 years, height= 171.1 ± 7.9 cm, weight= 62.4 ± 8.9 kg, BMI= 21.2 ± 1.9 kg/m2). They performed three different training: speed, coordination, and match formation. The HRV and HR of the participants were measured during warm-up, main training, and cool-down in each of the three different training sessions. Results: There was a significant interaction between time and intervention on RMSSD (Frmat= 2.983) and HR (Frmat t= 4.894). The results show that HR and HRV are affected differently by diverse training practices in football.

Objetivo: determinar el dominio del tiempo (SDNN, RMSSD) de la variabilidad de la frecuencia cardíaca (HRV) y la frecuencia cardíaca (HR) de los futbolistas jóvenes en diferentes entrenamientos. Método: participaron voluntariamente 15 jugadores de fútbol (media de edad = 15.5 ± 0.5 años, altura = 171.1 ± 7.9 cm, peso = 62.4 ± 8.9 kg, IMC = 21.2 ± 1.9 kg / m2), quienes se sometieron a 3 entrenamientos diferentes: velocidad, coordinación y partido de entrenamiento. La HRV y la HR de los deportistas se midieron durante el calentamiento, el entrenamiento principal y el enfriamiento en cada uno de los 3 entrenamientos. Resultados: hubo una interacción significativa entre el tiempo y la intervención en RMSSD (Frmat = 2.983) y HR (Frmat = 4.894). Los resultados indican que la HR y la HRV se ven afectadas de manera diferente por diversas prácticas de entrenamiento en fútbol.

Objetivo: determinar o controle do tempo (SDNN, RMSSD) da variabilidade da frequência cardíaca (HRV) e da frequência cardíaca (HR) dos futebolistas jovens em diferentes treinamentos. Método: participaram voluntariamente 15 jogadores de futebol (media de idade = 15.5 ± 0.5 anos, altura = 171.1 ± 7.9 cm, peso = 62.4 ± 8.9 kg, IMC = 21.2 ± 1.9 kg / m2), eles realizaram 3 treinamentos diferentes: velocidade, coordenação e partido de treinamento. A HRV e a HR dos esportistas se mediram durante o aquecimento, o treinamento principal e o esfriamento em cada um dos 3 treinamentos. Resultados: houve uma interação significativa entre o tempo e a intervenção em RMSSD (Frmat = 2.983) e HR (Frmat = 4.894). Os resultados indicam que a HR e a HRV são afetadas de maneiras diferentes por diversas práticas de treinamento em futebol.

Anxiety and Ironic Errors of Performance: Task Instruction Matters.

Five experiments that examined Wegner's theory of ironic processes of mental control in reactive motor performance under pressure are presented for the first time. In Experiments 1, 2, and 4, the authors conducted specific examinations of the incidence of an ironic error using a reactive motor task. In Experiments 3 and 5, they provided the first tests of whether task instruction moderates the incidence of ironic errors. The task required participants to react to a series of three primary-colored balls as they rolled down a chute under low- and high-anxiety conditions. Measures of anxiety, heart rate, heart-rate variability, and muscle activity confirmed the effectiveness of the anxiety manipulation. Experiments 1, 2, and 4 revealed that anxiety increased the number of ironic errors. In Experiments 3 and 5, the authors provided the first evidence that instructional interventions can reduce the incidence of anxiety-induced ironic performance errors in reactive motor tasks.

Ironic or Overcompensation Effects of Motor Behaviour: An Examination of a Tennis Serving Task Under Pressure.

With specific regard to the hypothesized effects of anxiety on performance in motor behaviour, the rival predictions emanating from the Wegner's "ironic processes theory" and the "implicit overcompensation hypothesis" are largely indiscriminate. Specifically, Wegner's theory predicts that self-instructions not to perform in a certain manner would lead to the very behaviour the individual seeks to avoid under pressure. On the other hand, the implicit overcompensation hypothesis predicts that avoidant instructions would produce the opposite outcome to that intended by the performer under pressure. The present novel study directly compared these predictions using a tennis serving task under manipulated instructions. The sample comprised 32 (20 men, 12 women; Mage = 20.81, SD = 2.20) experienced tennis players who performed a tennis serving task. Participants' levels of cognitive anxiety, somatic anxiety and self-confidence were measured by using Mental Readiness Form-3. A 2 (anxiety: low, high) × 3 (serving zone: target zone, non-target ironic error zone, non-target non-ironic error zone) repeated measures of ANOVA revealed a significant anxiety × serving zone interaction F(2, 62) = 32.27, p < 0.001 which provides specific support for the Wegner's ironic processes of mental control theory rather than implicit overcompensation hypothesis. More specifically, Bonferroni-corrected follow-up paired samples t-tests revealed that when instructed not to serve in a specific direction, anxious performers did so a significantly greater number of times (t31 = -5.15, p < 0.001). The present research demonstrates that ironic performance errors are a meaningful and robust potential concern for performers who are required to perform under pressure.

An Examination of Ironic Effects in Air-Pistol Shooting under Pressure.

This study aimed to test the incidence of ironic performance errors in elite air-pistol shooters. Previous research has revealed that, when shooters are anxious, avoidant instructions can cause ironic performance breakdown, especially in the unintended direction. Fifty-seven experienced air-pistol shooters were given specific instructions not to shoot to a certain part of a target, under low- and high-anxiety conditions, respectively. Results demonstrated that, when instructed not to shoot in a specific direction, anxious shooters did so a significant number of times. Interestingly, there was no difference in non-target non-ironic error, which provides specific support for Wegner's theory of ironic processes of mental control in air-pistol shooting. Consequently, these findings illustrated that the combination of increased anxiety with avoidant instructions could lead to such unintended performance errors, called ironic error. Thus, understanding the mechanism of the anxiety-performance relationship may be a useful theoretical framework which could provide practical, instruction-based interventions to reduce susceptibility to ironic errors under pressure.