Social value, normative features and gender differences associated with speeding and compliance with speed limits.

INTRODUCTION: Among risky driving behaviors, speeding is a main causal and aggravating factor of road crashes and is more frequent among males than females. Research suggests that this gender gap could be explained by gender social norms that lead males to assign more social value to speeding than females. However, few studies have proposed directly investigating gendered prescriptive norms associated with speeding. We propose to address this gap through two studies based on the socio-cognitive approach to social norms of judgment. METHODS: Study 1 (N = 128, within-subject design) investigated the extent to which speeding is subject to social valuation among males, compared to females, through a self-presentation task. Study 2 (N = 885, between-subject design) aimed to identify the dimension of social value (i.e., social desirability, social utility) that both genders associate with speeding, based on a judgment task. RESULTS AND CONCLUSION: Although results of study 1 indicate that both genders devaluate speeding and valuate speed limits compliance, we found that males do so to a lesser extent than females. Results of study 2 further suggest that males less valuate speed limit compliance than females on the social desirability dimension, while no gender difference were found in valuation of speeding on both dimensions of social value. Regardless of gender, results also indicate that speeding is valued more on the social utility than on the social desirability dimension, while speed limit compliance is valued similarly on both dimensions. PRACTICAL APPLICATIONS: Road safety campaigns toward males could benefit to focus more on enhancing the representations of speed compliant drivers, in terms of social desirability, than devaluing the representation of speeding drivers.

The pedestrian behaviour scale: A systematic review of its validation around the world.

OBJECTIVE: The Pedestrian Behaviour Scale (PBS) is a self-report questionnaire that distinguishes five dimensions of pedestrian behaviour: violations, errors, lapses, aggressive behaviours and positive behaviours. This study aimed to meet three objectives: to trace the development of the PBS worldwide from 1997 to 2021, to report on its varied uses and to analyse the scientific validation of the different dimensions of pedestrian behaviour reflected by the PBS and its derivatives. DESIGN/METHODOLOGY: In this systematic literature review, we selected all works that cited the 2013 founding study of the PBS as well as all publications that cited the 2017 US validation of PBS which was frequently replicated around the world. We conducted an online database search using Web of Science, Google Scholar, ResearchGate and PubMed. After excluding duplicates, 116 studies were identified. A total of 30 studies were selected to meet our first two objectives and 14 studies were selected to meet our third objective. RESULTS: Over time, the PBS has undergone many changes. Overall, we found differences in the scientific validation of this questionnaire depending on the version used, the validation tests performed and the population studied. The original version of the PBS and its Turkish adaptation proved most appropriate for assessing the transgressions dimension. The American version of the PBS proved a suitable alternative but it is more suited to assessing the two independent dimensions of violations and errors. The Chinese version of the PBS (CPBS) proved unsuitable for assessing the lapses dimension, while the original version of the PBS emerged as the best option for assessing aggressive behaviours. The positive behaviour dimension presented many validation difficulties but its assessment by the CPBS seems to be the most appropriate option. CONCLUSION: As no systematic review of the PBS has been conducted before, researchers can now make an informed choice of methodology quickly and be guided by our recommendations regarding the use and possible improvements of the different validated versions.

Analysis of Street-Crossing Behavior: Comparing a CAVE Simulator and a Head-Mounted Display among Younger and Older Adults.

Interactive pedestrian simulators have become a valuable research tool for investigating street-crossing behavior and developing solutions for improving pedestrian safety. There are two main kinds of pedestrian simulators: one uses a technology based on rear-projection screens (Cave Automatic Virtual Environment, or CAVE), the other a head-mounted display (HMD). These devices are used indiscriminately, regardless of the research objective, and it is not yet known whether they are equally effective for studying street crossing. The present study was aimed at comparing the street crossing behavior and subjective evaluations of younger and older adult pedestrians when they are using a CAVE-like or HMD-based (HTC Vive Pro) pedestrian simulator. Thirty younger adults and 25 older adults performed 36 street-crossing trials (combining different speeds, two-way traffic conditions, and gap sizes) on each of the two types of simulators. The results indicated that participants in the HMD condition crossed the street significantly more often (58.6 %) than in the CAVE condition (42.44%) and had shorter safety margins. The most striking difference pertained to crossing initiation, which occurred considerably earlier (1.78 s) in the HMD condition than in the CAVE condition. Synchronization of crossing initiation with oncoming traffic was not as good in the CAVE condition because visual information in front of the pedestrian was missing due to the absence of ground projection. In both simulators, older adults caused more collisions than did younger ones, had shorter safety margins, and a slower crossing speed. Hence, the HMD reproduced classical age-related differences in most street-crossing behaviors already found on the CAVE. Usually observed speed effects were also found for both simulators. Neither cybersickness nor any adverse effects on stereoacuity or postural balance were found for either simulator. The HMD produced a higher level of presence and preference than the CAVE did. These findings provide evidence that HMDs have a clear potential for studying pedestrian behaviour.

Investigating the gender differences on bicycle-vehicle conflicts at urban intersections using an ordered logit methodology.

In the literature, a crash-based modeling approach has long been used to evaluate the factors that contribute to cyclist injury risk at intersections. However, this approach has been criticized as crashes are required to occur before contributing factors can be identified and countermeasures can be implemented. Moreover, human factors related to dangerous behaviors are difficult to evaluate using crash-based methods. As an alternative, surrogate safety measures have been developed to address the issue of reliance on crash data. Despite recent developments, few methodologies and little empirical evidence exist on bicycle-vehicle interactions at intersections using video-based data and statistical analyses to identify associated factors. This study investigates bicycle-vehicle conflict severity and evaluates the impact of different factors, including gender, on cyclist risk at urban intersections with cycle tracks. A segmented ordered logit model is used to evaluate post-encroachment time between cyclists and vehicles. Video data was collected at seven intersections in Montreal, Canada. Road user trajectories were automatically extracted, classified, and filtered using a computer vision software to yield 1514 interactions. The discrete choice variable was generated by dividing post-encroachment time into normal interactions, conflicts, and dangerous conflicts. Independent variables reflecting attributes of the cyclist, vehicle, and environment were extracted either automatically or manually. Results indicated that an ordered model is appropriate for analyzing traffic conflicts and identifying key factors. Furthermore, exogenous segmentation was beneficial in comparing different segments of the population within a single model. Male cyclists, with all else being equal, were less likely than female cyclists to be involved in conflicts and dangerous conflicts at the studied intersections. Bicycle and vehicle speed, along with the time of the conflict relative to the red light phase, were other significant factors in conflict severity. These results will contribute to and further the understanding of gender differences in cycling within North America.

Sex and Age Differences in the Endorsement of Sex Stereotypes Associated with Driving.

Sex and age differences are particularly pronounced in car accidents. Current psychological research is exploring the relationship between risky driving and compliance with sex stereotypes, notably conformity with social expectations concerning masculinity. Some studies have already shown that sex stereotypes associated with driving (SSAD) may influence driving behaviors. The aim of this research was to explore the participants' sex and age differences in SSAD endorsement. A questionnaire was developed and validated on four dimensions of SSAD: male's driving skills and female's compliance with traffic rules, courtesy behind the wheel, and risk avoidance in driving. SSAD endorsement was measured for 291 licensed drivers from 18 to 64 years of age. Results revealed that females endorsed the female's risk avoidance stereotype more (p < .05), whereas males endorsed the male drivers (driving skills) stereotype more (p < .05). Results also revealed that the endorsement of male's driving skills decreases with age (p < .01) and the endorsement of female's courtesy increases with age among all participants (p = .01), while the endorsement of female's compliance with traffic rules increases with age only among female participants (p < .05). The results are discussed in terms of in-group/out-group relations and sex and age differences.

Influence of built environment on pedestrian's crossing decision.

The objective of this experimental study is to identify the differentiation made by pedestrians, in their crossing decision, between various urban environments, notably in terms of perception of walking pleasantness and safety. This experiment further aims to identify the environmental features that pedestrians take into account and the inferences they develop and use to explain their road crossing decision. Sets of photographs presenting five different environments (city center, inner suburbs, public housing in the outskirts, commercial zone in the outskirts and countryside) were presented to 77 participants divided up into three age groups (pre-adolescents, young and middle adults). Their decision to cross or not, their perception of pleasantness and safety, and the elements they take into account to make a decision were collected for each environment presented. The quantitative results show the pedestrians' perceptions of the pleasantness and safety of public spaces, in terms of walking, largely vary with urban environments. Moreover, the crossing decision significantly varies according to the environment. Pedestrians were significantly more inclined to take the decision to cross in city center than in the other sites presented. The qualitative analysis of the interviews shows that the presence and function of the buildings, the quality of the sidewalks and the marked parking spaces are key factors to explain their crossing decision, by enabling them to infer the density of pedestrians and traffic and the vehicle speed.

French validation of a new version of the driver behavior questionnaire (DBQ) for drivers of all ages and level of experiences.

The purpose of this study was to validate a new version of the Driver Behavior Questionnaire (DBQ) on a sample of French drivers in order to gain a better understanding of different driver behaviors, by differentiating two types of violations (aggressive and ordinary), three types of errors (dangerous, inattention and inexperience) and by taking positive behaviors into account. 525 drivers (205 men and 320 women), between 18 and 79 years of age, filled in a questionnaire on line including the 41 items in the new version of the DBQ and information relative to their mobility and their accident history. Exploratory factor analysis confirmed a six-factor structure: "dangerous errors", "inattention errors", "inexperience errors", "ordinary violations", "aggressive violations" and "positive behaviors". A revised version with 23 items of the new version of the DBQ was produced by selecting the items that loaded most strongly on the six factors. The results also showed the link between demographic variables (age and gender), mobility (kilometers driven weekly), the DBQ scores and the involvement in an accident in the previous five years. This study permitted to validate a more detailed version of the "Driving Behavior Questionnaire" among French drivers of all age and all level of experience.

Developing a self-reporting method to measure pedestrian behaviors at all ages.

The objective of this study was to develop and validate a self-reporting scale to measure injury risk behaviors among pedestrians of all ages. The Pedestrian Behavior Scale (PBS) was developed that included 47 items enabling respondents to evaluate the frequency with which they had different types of pedestrian behaviors. The validation study was carried out on 343 participants (126 men and 217 women) between the ages of 15 and 78. Factor analyses were used to differentiate between 4 axes. Factor 1, "transgression", included items concerning offence of legal rules and errors. Factor 2 included "lapses" items. Factor 3 comprised "aggressive behavior" items and factor 4 included "positive behavior" items. A revised version of the PBS with 20 items was produced by selecting those items that loaded most strongly on the four factors. The 20-item version had good internal reliability. The effects of demographic and mobility variables on the PBS scores were investigated. This instrument will be useful in measuring the frequency of these different types of behaviors among the pedestrians who are most at risk, analyzing the psychological factors used to predict PBS scores and thus better adapt preventive actions to the different populations of vulnerable road users of all ages.

Gender differences in pedestrian rule compliance and visual search at signalized and unsignalized crossroads.

Male pedestrians are over-represented in road crashes. Among pedestrians, males violate more rules than females do. For now, it is not known whether gender differences in pedestrian behaviors only concern rule compliance. The objective of this study was to explore gender differences in pedestrian rule compliance and in gaze targets before and during crossing. 400 adult pedestrians were observed at two signalized and two unsignalized crossroads, using a taxonomic observation grid which detailed 13 behavioral categories before, during and after crossing. The results show that the temporal crossing compliance rate is lower among male pedestrians but spatial crossing compliance does not differ between genders. Furthermore, different gaze patterns emerge between genders before and during crossing, notably as women particularly focus on other pedestrians during these two periods whereas men focus on vehicles. Moreover, females' gazes vary with the type of crossroads, but males' gazes do not. Spatial crossing compliance and gaze targets are furthermore modulated by the crossroad configuration. These results are discussed in terms of pedestrian visual strategy and compliance.

Gender stereotype conformity and age as determinants of preschoolers' injury-risk behaviors.

Unintentional injuries continue to be a serious public-health problem for children and are higher for boys than for girls, from infancy through adulthood. Literature on differential socialization concerning risky behaviors and gender stereotypes suggests that sex differences in unintentional injuries could be explained by children's differential feedback to social pressure, leading to behaviors which conform to masculine and feminine stereotypes. We made the prediction that boys' and girls' conformity with masculine stereotypes influences injury-risk behaviors among preschoolers. Masculinity score, femininity score, and injury-risk behaviors of 170 3-6-year old children (89 boys and 81 girls) were measured indirectly on two scales filled out by their parents. Results show that boys' and girls' injury-risk behaviors are predicted by masculine stereotype conformity and that girls' masculine behaviors decline with increasing age. These results underline the impact of gender-roles - and of the differential socialization associated with those roles - on sex differences in children's risky behaviors as early as the preschool period.