The TRIM4 E3 ubiquitin ligase degrades TPL2 and is modulated by oncogenic KRAS.

Loss-of-function mutations in the C terminus of TPL2 kinase promote oncogenesis by impeding its proteasomal degradation, leading to sustained protein expression. However, the degradation mechanism for TPL2 has remained elusive. Through proximity-dependent biotin identification (BioID), we uncovered tripartite motif-containing 4 (TRIM4) as the E3 ligase that binds and degrades TPL2 by polyubiquitination of lysines 415 and 439. The naturally occurring TPL2 mutants R442H and E188K exhibit impaired TRIM4 binding, enhancing their stability. We further discovered that TRIM4 itself is stabilized by another E3 ligase, TRIM21, which in turn is regulated by KRAS. Mutant KRAS recruits RNF185 to degrade TRIM21 and subsequently TRIM4, thereby stabilizing TPL2. In the presence of mutant KRAS, TPL2 phosphorylates and degrades GSK3ß, resulting in ß-catenin stabilization and activation of the Wnt pathway. These findings elucidate the physiological mechanisms regulating TPL2 and its exploitation by mutant KRAS, underscoring the need to develop TPL2 inhibitors for KRAS-mutant cancers.

Combined KRAS-MAPK pathway inhibitors and HER2-directed drug conjugate is efficacious in pancreatic cancer.

Targeting the mitogen-activated protein kinase (MAPK) cascade in pancreatic ductal adenocarcinoma (PDAC) remains clinically unsuccessful. We aim to develop a MAPK inhibitor-based therapeutic combination with strong preclinical efficacy. Utilizing a reverse-phase protein array, we observe rapid phospho-activation of human epidermal growth factor receptor 2 (HER2) in PDAC cells upon pharmacological MAPK inhibition. Mechanistically, MAPK inhibitors lead to swift proteasomal degradation of dual-specificity phosphatase 6 (DUSP6). The carboxy terminus of HER2, containing a TEY motif also present in extracellular signal-regulated kinase 1/2 (ERK1/2), facilitates binding with DUSP6, enhancing its phosphatase activity to dephosphorylate HER2. In the presence of MAPK inhibitors, DUSP6 dissociates from the protective effect of the RING E3 ligase tripartite motif containing 21, resulting in its degradation. In PDAC patient-derived xenograft (PDX) models, combining ERK and HER inhibitors slows tumour growth and requires cytotoxic chemotherapy to achieve tumour regression. Alternatively, MAPK inhibitors with trastuzumab deruxtecan, an anti-HER2 antibody conjugated with cytotoxic chemotherapy, lead to sustained tumour regression in most tested PDXs without causing noticeable toxicity. Additionally, KRAS inhibitors also activate HER2, supporting testing the combination of KRAS inhibitors and trastuzumab deruxtecan in PDAC. This study identifies a rational and promising therapeutic combination for clinical testing in PDAC patients.

A Pilot Study of Paricalcitol plus Nanoliposomal Irinotecan and 5-FU/LV in Advanced Pancreatic Cancer Patients after Progression on Gemcitabine-Based Therapy.

PURPOSE: Vitamin D analogues remodel the desmoplastic stroma, and improve vascularity and efficacy of chemotherapy in preclinical pancreas cancer models. PATIENTS AND METHODS: We conducted a pilot study to evaluate the safety and preliminary efficacy of the vitamin D analogue paricalcitol in combination with nanoliposomal irinotecan (Nal-iri) plus 5-fluorouracil/leucovorin (5-FU/LV) in patients with advanced pancreatic cancer who had progressed on gemcitabine-based therapy. Two dose levels (DL) of paricalcitol were tested: fixed dose weekly (75 mcg, DL1) and weight-based weekly (7 mcg/kg, /DL2). The primary endpoint was safety, and secondary endpoints included overall response rate, progression-free survival (PFS), and overall survival (OS). Correlative objectives aimed to identify molecular predictors of response and alterations in the tumor stroma. RESULTS: Twenty patients (10 each in DL1 and DL2) enrolled between March 2019 and May 2021. No grade 3/4 adverse events related to paricalcitol were observed. The most common toxicities were nausea, diarrhea and fatigue, which were similar in both cohorts. Three patients discontinued study after one cycle and were not radiographically evaluable. Of the remaining 17 evaluable patients, 2 had partial response and 12 had stable disease. The median PFS for response-evaluable patients in DL1 was 4.14 months, for DL2 was 4.83 months. Intent-to-treat median OS was 6.15 and 6.66 months for DL1 and DL2, respectively. Correlative studies showed increased tumor vascularity in posttreatment samples in patients receiving the higher dose of paricalcitol (DL2). CONCLUSIONS: Paricalcitol at 7 mcg/kg/week in combination with Nal-iri/ 5-FU/LV is safely tolerated, may increase tumor vascularity and warrants further investigation.

Esophageal and Esophagogastric Junction Cancers, Version 2.2023, NCCN Clinical Practice Guidelines in Oncology.

Cancers originating in the esophagus or esophagogastric junction constitute a major global health problem. Esophageal cancers are histologically classified as squamous cell carcinoma (SCC) or adenocarcinoma, which differ in their etiology, pathology, tumor location, therapeutics, and prognosis. In contrast to esophageal adenocarcinoma, which usually affects the lower esophagus, esophageal SCC is more likely to localize at or higher than the tracheal bifurcation. Systemic therapy can provide palliation, improved survival, and enhanced quality of life in patients with locally advanced or metastatic disease. The implementation of biomarker testing, especially analysis of HER2 status, microsatellite instability status, and the expression of programmed death-ligand 1, has had a significant impact on clinical practice and patient care. Targeted therapies including trastuzumab, nivolumab, ipilimumab, and pembrolizumab have produced encouraging results in clinical trials for the treatment of patients with locally advanced or metastatic disease. Palliative management, which may include systemic therapy, chemoradiation, and/or best supportive care, is recommended for all patients with unresectable or metastatic cancer. Multidisciplinary team management is essential for all patients with locally advanced esophageal or esophagogastric junction cancers. This selection from the NCCN Guidelines for Esophageal and Esophagogastric Junction Cancers focuses on the management of recurrent or metastatic disease.

Phase Ib Study of Ulixertinib Plus Gemcitabine and Nab-Paclitaxel in Patients with Metastatic Pancreatic Adenocarcinoma.

BACKGROUND: Ulixertinib is a novel oral ERK inhibitor that has shown promising single-agent activity in a phase I clinical trial that included patients with RAS-mutant cancers. METHODS: We conducted a phase Ib trial combining ulixertinib with gemcitabine and nab-paclitaxel (GnP) for untreated metastatic pancreatic adenocarcinoma. The trial comprised a dose de-escalation part and a cohort expansion part at the recommended phase II dose (RP2D). Primary endpoint was to determine the RP2D of ulixertinib plus GnP and secondary endpoints were to assess toxicity and safety profile, biochemical and radiographic response, progression-free survival (PFS) and overall survival (OS). RESULTS: Eighteen patients were enrolled. Ulixertinib 600 mg PO twice daily (BID) with GnP was initially administered but was de-escalated to 450 mg BID as RP2D early during dose expansion due to poor tolerability, which ultimately led to premature termination of the study. Common treatment-related adverse events (TRAEs) were anemia, thrombocytopenia, rash and diarrhea. For 5 response evaluable patients, one patient achieved a partial response and 2 patients achieved stable disease. For 15 patients who received the triplet, median PFS and OS were 5.46 and 12.23 months, respectively. CONCLUSION: Ulixertinib plus GnP had similar frequency of grade ≥3 TRAEs and potentially efficacy as GnP, however was complicated by a high rate of all-grade TRAEs (ClinicalTrials.gov Identifier: NCT02608229).

IRAK4 Signaling Drives Resistance to Checkpoint Immunotherapy in Pancreatic Ductal Adenocarcinoma.

BACKGROUND & AIMS: Checkpoint immunotherapy is largely ineffective in pancreatic ductal adenocarcinoma (PDAC). The innate immune nuclear factor (NF)-κB pathway promotes PDAC cell survival and stromal fibrosis, and is driven by Interleukin-1 Receptor Associated Kinase-4 (IRAK4), but its impact on tumor immunity has not been directly investigated. METHODS: We interrogated The Cancer Genome Atlas data to identify the correlation between NF-κB and T cell signature, and a PDAC tissue microarray (TMA) to correlate IRAK4 activity with CD8+ T cell abundance. We performed RNA sequencing (RNA-seq) on IRAK4-deleted PDAC cells, and single-cell RNA-seq on autochthonous KPC (p48-Cre/TP53f/f/LSL-KRASG12D) mice treated with an IRAK4 inhibitor. We generated conditional IRAK4-deleted KPC mice and complementarily used IRAK4 inhibitors to determine the impact of IRAK4 on T cell immunity. RESULTS: We found positive correlation between NF-κB activity, IRAK4 and T cell exhaustion from The Cancer Genome Atlas. We observed inverse correlation between phosphorylated IRAK4 and CD8+ T cell abundance in a PDAC tissue microarray. Loss of IRAK4 abrogates NF-κB activity, several immunosuppressive factors, checkpoint ligands, and hyaluronan synthase 2, all of which drive T cell dysfunction. Accordingly, conditional deletion or pharmacologic inhibition of IRAK4 markedly decreased tumor desmoplasia and increased the abundance and activity of infiltrative CD4+ and CD8+ T cells in KPC tumors. Single-cell RNA-seq showed myeloid and fibroblast reprogramming toward acute inflammatory responses following IRAK4 inhibition. These changes set the stage for successful combination of IRAK4 inhibitors with checkpoint immunotherapy, resulting in excellent tumor control and markedly prolonged survival of KPC mice. CONCLUSION: IRAK4 drives T cell dysfunction in PDAC and is a novel, promising immunotherapeutic target.

The MK2/Hsp27 axis is a major survival mechanism for pancreatic ductal adenocarcinoma under genotoxic stress.

Combination chemotherapies remain the cornerstone treatment for pancreatic ductal adenocarcinoma (PDAC), but de novo and acquired resistance is common. In this study, we aimed to identify and characterize resistance mechanisms to a FIRINOX chemotherapy regimen (a combination of 5-fluorouracil, irinotecan, and oxaliplatin) because it is the most aggressive regimen currently used clinically for patients with PDAC. Using an unbiased reverse-phase protein array, we detected phospho-activation of heat shock protein 27 (Hsp27) as the most up-regulated event after FIRINOX treatment in PDAC cells. Silencing HSP27 by RNA interference or by a small-molecule inhibitor enhanced apoptosis caused by FIRINOX in vitro. Mechanistically, FIRINOX up-regulated tumor necrosis factor­α (TNFα), causing autocrine phosphorylation and activation of transforming growth factor­ß­activated kinase 1 (TAK1), MAPK activated protein kinase 2 (MAPKAPK2 or MK2), and, ultimately, Hsp27. Targeting MK2, the kinase that directly phosphorylates Hsp27, abrogated Hsp27 activation, sensitized PDAC cells to apoptosis, and suppressed SN-38­induced protective autophagy in vitro, in part by blocking phospho-activation of Beclin1. In an autochthonous PDAC mouse model, the MK2 inhibitor ATI-450 decreased PDAC development and progression. When combined with FIRINOX, ATI-450 eliminated most PDAC foci and marked prolonged mouse survival without causing additional toxicity. Last, we found that high phospho-MK2 expression in tumors was associated with poorer survival of patients with PDAC. Our study identified MK2 as a mediator of genotoxic stress­induced activation of prosurvival pathways and provides preclinical support for combining an MK2 inhibitor with FIRINOX-based chemotherapies to treat PDAC.

Stroma-targeting strategies in pancreatic cancer: Past lessons, challenges and prospects.

Pancreatic ductal adenocarcinoma (PDAC) is projected to emerge as the second leading cause of cancer-related death after 2030. Extreme treatment resistance is perhaps the most significant factor that underlies the poor prognosis of PDAC. To date, combination chemotherapy remains the mainstay of treatment for most PDAC patients. Compared to other cancer types, treatment response of PDAC tumors to similar chemotherapy regimens is clearly much lower and shorter-lived. Aside from typically harboring genetic alterations that to date remain un-druggable and are drivers of treatment resistance, PDAC tumors are uniquely characterized by a densely fibrotic stroma that has well-established roles in promoting cancer progression and treatment resistance. However, emerging evidence also suggests that indiscriminate targeting and near complete depletion of stroma may promote PDAC aggressiveness and lead to detrimental outcomes. These conflicting results undoubtedly warrant the need for a more in-depth understanding of the heterogeneity of tumor stroma in order to develop modulatory strategies in favor of tumor suppression. The advent of novel techniques including single cell RNA sequencing and multiplex immunohistochemistry have further illuminated the complex heterogeneity of tumor cells, stromal fibroblasts, and immune cells. This new knowledge is instrumental for development of more refined therapeutic strategies that can ultimately defeat this disease. Here, we provide a concise review on lessons learned from past stroma-targeting strategies, new challenges revealed from recent preclinical and clinical studies, as well as new prospects in the treatment of PDAC.

Combined Systemic and Hepatic Artery Infusion Pump Chemo-Therapy as a Liver-Directed Therapy for Colorectal Liver Metastasis-Review of Literature and Case Discussion.

Colorectal cancer (CRC) is the third most prevalent malignancy and the second most common cause of death in the US. Liver is the most common site of colorectal metastases. About 13% of patients with colorectal cancer have liver metastasis on initial presentation and 50% develop them during the disease course. Although systemic chemotherapy and immunotherapy are the mainstay treatment for patients with metastatic disease, for selected patients with predominant liver metastasis, liver-directed approaches may provide prolonged disease control when combined with systemic treatments. Hepatic artery infusion pump (HAIP) chemotherapy is an approach which allows direct infusion of chemotherapeutic into the liver and is especially useful in the setting of multifocal liver metastases. When combined with systemic chemotherapy, HAIP improves the response rate, provides more durable disease control, and in some patients leads to successful resection. To ensure safety, use of HAIP requires multidisciplinary collaboration between interventional radiologists, medical oncologists, hepatobiliary surgeons and treatment nurses. Here, we review the benefits and potential risks with this approach and provide our single institution experience on two CRC patients successfully treated with HAIP in combination with systemic chemotherapy. We provide our recommendations in adopting this technique in the current era for patient with colorectal liver metastases.

Vorolanib (X-82), an oral anti-VEGFR/PDGFR/CSF1R tyrosine kinase inhibitor, with everolimus in solid tumors: results of a phase I study.

Background Anti-vascular endothelial growth factor receptor (VEGFR) tyrosine kinase inhibitors (TKI) combined with mTOR inhibitors, like everolimus, result in significant responses and prolonged progression-free survival (PFS) among patients with renal cell carcinoma (RCC) [1]. However, everolimus doses >5 mg are often not tolerated when combined with other TKIs2,3. Vorolanib (X-82), an oral anti-VEGFR/platelet derived growth factor receptor (PDGFR)/colony stimulating factor 1 receptor (CSF1R) multitarget TKI, has a short half-life and limited tissue accumulation. We conducted a Phase 1 study of vorolanib with everolimus (10 mg daily) in patients with solid tumors. Methods A 3 + 3 dose escalation design was utilized to determine dose limiting toxicities (DLT) and recommended Phase 2 dose (RP2D) of vorolanib/everolimus. Oral vorolanib at 100, 150, 200, 300, or 400 mg was combined with 10 mg oral everolimus daily. The phase 2 portion was terminated after enrolling two patients due to funding. Results Eighteen patients were evaluable for DLT among 22 treated subjects. Observed DLTs were grade 3 fatigue, hypophosphatemia, and mucositis. The RP2D is vorolanib 300 mg with everolimus 10 mg daily. In 15 patients evaluable for response, three had partial response (PR; 2 RCC, 1 neuroendocrine tumor [NET]) and eight had stable disease (SD; 2 RCC, 6 NET). Conclusions Vorolanib can safely be combined with everolimus. Encouraging activity is seen in RCC and NET. Further studies are warranted. Trial Registration Number: NCT01784861.

CC Chemokine Receptor 2-Targeting Copper Nanoparticles for Positron Emission Tomography-Guided Delivery of Gemcitabine for Pancreatic Ductal Adenocarcinoma.

Pancreatic ductal adenocarcinoma (PDAC) is a deadly malignancy with dire prognosis due to aggressive biology, lack of effective tools for diagnosis at an early stage, and limited treatment options. Detection of PDAC using conventional radiographic imaging is limited by the dense, hypovascular stromal component and relatively scarce neoplastic cells within the tumor microenvironment (TME). The CC motif chemokine 2 (CCL2) and its cognate receptor CCR2 (CCL2/CCR2) axis are critical in fostering and maintaining this kind of TME by recruiting immunosuppressive myeloid cells such as the tumor-associated macrophages, thereby presenting an opportunity to exploit this axis for both diagnostic and therapeutic purposes. We engineered CCR2-targeting ultrasmall copper nanoparticles (Cu@CuOx) as nanovehicles not only for targeted positron emission tomography imaging by intrinsic radiolabeling with 64Cu but also for loading and delivery of the chemotherapy drug gemcitabine to PDAC. This 64Cu-radiolabeled nanovehicle allowed sensitive and accurate detection of PDAC malignancy in autochthonous genetically engineered mouse models. The ultrasmall Cu@CuOx showed efficient renal clearance, favorable pharmacokinetics, and minimal in vivo toxicity. Systemic administration of gemcitabine-loaded Cu@CuOx effectively suppressed the progression of PDAC tumors in a syngeneic xenograft mouse model and prolonged survival. These CCR2-targeted ultrasmall nanoparticles offer a promising image-guided therapeutic agent and show great potential for translation.

TPL2 enforces RAS-induced inflammatory signaling and is activated by point mutations.

NF-κB transcription factors, driven by the IRAK/IKK cascade, confer treatment resistance in pancreatic ductal adenocarcinoma (PDAC), a cancer characterized by near-universal KRAS mutation. Through reverse-phase protein array and RNA sequencing we discovered that IRAK4 also contributes substantially to MAPK activation in KRAS-mutant PDAC. IRAK4 ablation completely blocked RAS-induced transformation of human and murine cells. Mechanistically, expression of mutant KRAS stimulated an inflammatory, autocrine IL-1ß signaling loop that activated IRAK4 and the MAPK pathway. Downstream of IRAK4, we uncovered TPL2 (also known as MAP3K8 or COT) as the essential kinase that propels both MAPK and NF-κB cascades. Inhibition of TPL2 blocked both MAPK and NF-κB signaling, and suppressed KRAS-mutant cell growth. To counter chemotherapy-induced genotoxic stress, PDAC cells upregulated TLR9, which activated prosurvival IRAK4/TPL2 signaling. Accordingly, a TPL2 inhibitor synergized with chemotherapy to curb PDAC growth in vivo. Finally, from TCGA we characterized 2 MAP3K8 point mutations that hyperactivate MAPK and NF-κB cascades by impeding TPL2 protein degradation. Cancer cell lines naturally harboring these MAP3K8 mutations are strikingly sensitive to TPL2 inhibition, underscoring the need to identify these potentially targetable mutations in patients. Overall, our study establishes TPL2 as a promising therapeutic target in RAS- and MAP3K8-mutant cancers and strongly prompts development of TPL2 inhibitors for preclinical and clinical studies.

Phase Ib/II study combining tosedostat with capecitabine in patients with advanced pancreatic adenocarcinoma.

BACKGROUND: Pancreatic ductal adenocarcinoma (PDAC) is an aggressive malignancy with limited therapeutic options. We evaluated the safety and efficacy of the aminopeptidase inhibitor tosedostat with capecitabine in advanced PDAC. METHODS: We conducted a phase Ib/II trial of tosedostat with capecitabine as second-line therapy for advanced PDAC. Planned enrollment was 36 patients. Eligible patients were treated with capecitabine 1,000 mg/m2 oral twice-daily days 1-14 and oral tosedostat in a dose de-escalation design on days 1-21 of each 21-day cycle. Primary endpoints were the recommended phase 2 dose (RP2D) and progression-free survival (PFS). RESULTS: Sixteen patients were enrolled. Tosedostat 120 mg oral twice daily with capecitabine 1,000 mg/m2 oral twice daily was the RP2D. There was one dose-limiting toxicity (DLT) (grade 3 acute coronary syndrome) during phase Ib. The most common treatment-related adverse events were gastrointestinal (nausea, diarrhea), cardiac [QTc prolongation, decreased ejection fraction (EF)], and fatigue. The median PFS was 7.1 months, and the median treatment failure free survival was 3 months. Eight patients experienced stable disease for greater than 3 months. The study was closed early due to lack of drug availability. CONCLUSIONS: Tosedostat with capecitabine displayed tolerable toxicity, and prolonged disease control in a subset of patients. These data encourage further exploration of aminopeptidase inhibitors in pancreatic cancer.

IRAK4 mediates colitis-induced tumorigenesis and chemoresistance in colorectal cancer.

Aberrant activation of the NF-κB transcription factors underlies chemoresistance in various cancer types, including colorectal cancer (CRC). Targeting the activating mechanisms, particularly with inhibitors to the upstream IκB kinase (IKK) complex, is a promising strategy to augment the effect of chemotherapy. However, clinical success has been limited, largely because of low specificity and toxicities of tested compounds. In solid cancers, the IKKs are driven predominantly by the Toll-like receptor (TLR)/IL-1 receptor family members, which signal through the IL-1 receptor-associated kinases (IRAKs), with isoform 4 (IRAK4) being the most critical. The pathogenic role and therapeutic value of IRAK4 in CRC have not been investigated. We found that IRAK4 inhibition significantly abrogates colitis-induced neoplasm in APCMin/+ mice, and bone marrow transplant experiments showed an essential role of IRAK4 in immune cells during neoplastic progression. Chemotherapy significantly enhances IRAK4 and NF-κB activity in CRC cells through upregulating TLR9 expression, which can in turn be suppressed by IRAK4 and IKK inhibitors, suggesting a feed-forward pathway that protects CRC cells from chemotherapy. Lastly, increased tumor phospho-IRAK4 staining or IRAK4 mRNA expression is associated with significantly worse survival in CRC patients. Our results support targeting IRAK4 to improve the effects of chemotherapy and outcomes in CRC.

Concurrent HER or PI3K Inhibition Potentiates the Antitumor Effect of the ERK Inhibitor Ulixertinib in Preclinical Pancreatic Cancer Models.

Effective treatment for pancreatic ductal adenocarcinoma (PDAC) is an urgent, unmet medical need. Targeting KRAS, the oncogene that is present in >95% of PDAC, is a heavily pursued strategy, but remains unsuccessful in the clinic. Therefore, targeting key effector cascades of KRAS oncoprotein, particularly the mitogenic RAF-MEK-ERK pathway, represents the next best strategy. However, RAF or MEK inhibitors have failed to show clinical efficacy in PDAC. Several studies have shown that cancer cells treated with RAF or MEK inhibitors adopt multiple mechanisms to reactivate ERK signaling. Therefore, development of ERK-specific inhibitors carries the promise to effectively abrogate this pathway. Ulixertinib (or BVD-523) is a first-in-class ERK-specific inhibitor that has demonstrated promising antitumor activity in a phase I clinical trial for advanced solid tumors with NRAS and BRAF mutations, providing a strong rationale to test this inhibitor in PDAC. In this study, we show that ulixertinib effectively inhibits in vitro growth of multiple PDAC lines and potentiates the cytotoxic effect of gemcitabine. Moreover, we found that PDAC cells treated with ulixertinib upregulates the parallel PI3K-AKT pathway through activating the HER/ErbB family proteins. Concurrent inhibition of PI3K or HER proteins synergizes with ulixertinib in suppressing PDAC cell growth in vitro and in vivo Overall, our study provides the preclinical rationale for testing combinations of ulixertinib with chemotherapy or PI3K and HER inhibitors in PDAC patients. Mol Cancer Ther; 17(10); 2144-55. ©2018 AACR.

Distinct clinical and magnetic resonance features of metastatic hepatocellular carcinoma treated with pembrolizumab: A case report of late response after pseudoprogression.

There are few effective therapies for unresectable or metastatic hepatocellular carcinoma. Recent data have demonstrated efficacy of immune checkpoint blockade in this difficult to treat disease; however, clinical experience is limited. We report a case of hepatocellular carcinoma displaying pseudoprogression followed by a late response with novel magnetic resonance imaging features following treatment with the anti-programmed cell death protein 1 agent pembrolizumab. (Hepatology Communications 2018;2:148-151).

Rapid Clinical and Radiographic Response With Combined Dabrafenib and Trametinib in Adults With BRAF-Mutated High-Grade Glioma.

BRAF V600E mutations have been successfully treated with targeted therapy in melanoma, non-small cell lung cancer, and thyroid cancer. Interestingly, these mutations have also been identified in a subset of pediatric and adult brain tumors, with several cases reportedly responding to targeted therapy. However, these reports have been limited to single-agent BRAF inhibitor therapy and recurrent disease. Herein, we report dramatic clinical and radiographic responses to combination dabrafenib (BRAF inhibitor) and trametinib (MEK inhibitor) in 2 adults with high-grade gliomas (HGGs), with 1 patient treated in the first-line setting. These observations, together with prior case reports, advocate for routine screening of BRAF point mutations in adult HGGs, and suggest that treatment with dual-targeted therapy, even in newly diagnosed cases, is safe and effective.

Immunotherapy in gastrointestinal cancers.

Gastrointestinal (GI) cancers such as gastric, esophageal, pancreas, hepatobiliary, colorectal and anal cancers are a major cause of cancer related mortality worldwide. Traditional treatment options such as chemotherapy, surgery, radiation therapy, monoclonal antibodies and anti-angiogenic agents have been the backbone of treatment of GI cancers in various stages. Current cancer research is moving forward to incorporate immunotherapies in the treatment of GI cancers either as single agent or in combination with current available treatment modalities. This review summarizes the existing and ongoing immunotherapies in the treatment of GI cancers.