The behavioral variant of Alzheimer's disease does not show a selective loss of Von Economo and phylogenetically related neurons in the anterior cingulate cortex.

BACKGROUND: The neurobiological origins of the early and predominant behavioral changes seen in the behavioral variant of Alzheimer's disease (bvAD) remain unclear. A selective loss of Von Economo neurons (VENs) and phylogenetically related neurons have been observed in behavioral variant frontotemporal dementia (bvFTD) and several psychiatric diseases. Here, we assessed whether these specific neuronal populations show a selective loss in bvAD. METHODS: VENs and GABA receptor subunit theta (GABRQ)-immunoreactive pyramidal neurons of the anterior cingulate cortex (ACC) were quantified in post-mortem tissue of patients with bvAD (n = 9) and compared to typical AD (tAD, n = 6), bvFTD due to frontotemporal lobar degeneration based on TDP-43 pathology (FTLD, n = 18) and controls (n = 13) using ANCOVAs adjusted for age and Bonferroni corrected. In addition, ratios of VENs and GABRQ-immunoreactive (GABRQ-ir) pyramidal neurons over all Layer 5 neurons were compared between groups to correct for overall Layer 5 neuronal loss. RESULTS: The number of VENs or GABRQ-ir neurons did not differ significantly between bvAD (VENs: 26.0 ± 15.3, GABRQ-ir pyramidal: 260.4 ± 87.1) and tAD (VENs: 32.0 ± 18.1, p = 1.00, GABRQ-ir pyramidal: 349.8 ± 109.6, p = 0.38) and controls (VENs: 33.5 ± 20.3, p = 1.00, GABRQ-ir pyramidal: 339.4 ± 95.9, p = 0.37). Compared to bvFTD, patients with bvAD showed significantly more GABRQ-ir pyramidal neurons (bvFTD: 140.5 ± 82.658, p = 0.01) and no significant differences in number of VENs (bvFTD: 10.9 ± 13.8, p = 0.13). Results were similar when assessing the number of VENs and GABRQ-ir relative to all neurons of Layer 5. DISCUSSION: VENs and phylogenetically related neurons did not show a selective loss in the ACC in patients with bvAD. Our results suggest that, unlike in bvFTD, the clinical presentation in bvAD may not be related to the loss of VENs and related neurons in the ACC.

Regional and hemispheric susceptibility of the temporal lobe to FTLD-TDP type C pathology.

Post-mortem studies show that focal anterior temporal lobe (ATL) neurodegeneration is most often caused by frontotemporal lobar degeneration TDP-43 type C pathology. Clinically, these patients are described with different terms, such as semantic variant primary progressive aphasia (svPPA), semantic dementia (SD), or right temporal variant frontotemporal dementia (FTD) depending on whether the predominant symptoms affect language, semantic knowledge for object or people, or socio-emotional behaviors. ATL atrophy presents with various degrees of lateralization, with right-sided cases considered rarer even though estimation of their prevalence is hampered by the paucity of studies on well-characterized, pathology-proven cohorts. Moreover, it is not clear whether left and right variants show a similar distribution of atrophy within the ATL cross-sectionally and longitudinally. Here we study the largest cohort to-date of pathology-proven TDP-43-C cases diagnosed during life as svPPA, SD or right temporal variant FTD. We analyzed clinical, cognitive, and neuroimaging data from 30 cases, a subset of which was followed longitudinally. Guided by recent structural and functional parcellation studies, we constructed four bilateral ATL regions of interest (ROIs). The computation of an atrophy lateralization index allowed the comparison of atrophy patterns between the two hemispheres. This led to an automatic, imaging-based classification of the cases as left-predominant or right-predominant. We then compared the two groups in terms of regional atrophy patterns within the ATL ROIs (cross-sectionally) and atrophy progression (longitudinally). Results showed that 40% of pathology proven cases of TDP-43-C diagnosed with a temporal variant presented with right-lateralized atrophy. Moreover, the findings of our ATL ROI analysis indicated that, irrespective of atrophy lateralization, atrophy distribution within both ATLs follows a medial-to-lateral gradient. Finally, in both left and right cases, atrophy appeared to progress to the contralateral ATL, and from the anterior temporal pole to posterior temporal and orbitofrontal regions. Taken together, our findings indicate that incipient right predominant ATL atrophy is common in TDP-43-C pathology, and that distribution of damage within the ATLs appears to be the same in left- and right- sided variants. Thus, regardless of differences in clinical phenotype and atrophy lateralization, both temporal variants of FTD should be viewed as a spectrum presentation of the same disease.

Pathoarchitectonics of the cerebral cortex in chorea-acanthocytosis and Huntington's disease.

AIMS: Quantitative estimation of cortical neurone loss in cases with chorea-acanthocytosis (ChAc) and its impact on laminar composition. METHODS: We used unbiased stereological tools to estimate the degree of cortical pathology in serial gallocyanin-stained brain sections through the complete hemispheres of three subjects with genetically verified ChAc and a range of disease durations. We compared these results with our previous data of five Huntington's disease (HD) and five control cases. Pathoarchitectonic changes were exemplarily documented in TE1 of a 61-year-old female HD-, a 60-year-old female control case, and ChAc3. RESULTS: Macroscopically, the cortical volume of our ChAc cases (ChAc1-3) remained close to normal. However, the average number of neurones was reduced by 46% in ChAc and by 33% in HD (P = 0.03 for ChAc & HD vs. controls; P = 0.64 for ChAc vs. HD). Terminal HD cases featured selective laminar neurone loss with pallor of layers III, V and VIa, a high density of small, pale, closely packed radial fibres in deep cortical layers VI and V, shrinkage, and chromophilia of subcortical white matter. In ChAc, pronounced diffuse astrogliosis blurred the laminar borders, thus masking the complete and partial loss of pyramidal cells in layer IIIc and of neurones in layers III, V and VI. CONCLUSION: ChAc is a neurodegenerative disease with distinct cortical neurodegeneration. The hypertrophy of the peripheral neuropil space of minicolumns with coarse vertical striation was characteristic of ChAc. The role of astroglia in the pathogenesis of this disorder remains to be elucidated.

Prevalence of transactive response DNA-binding protein 43 (TDP-43) proteinopathy in cognitively normal older adults: systematic review and meta-analysis.

OBJECTIVE: To perform a systematic review and meta-analysis on the prevalence of transactive response DNA-binding protein 43 (TDP-43) proteinopathy in cognitively normal older adults. METHODS: We systematically reviewed and performed a meta-analysis on the prevalence of TDP-43 proteinopathy in older adults with normal cognition, evaluated by the Mini-Mental State Examination or the Clinical Dementia Rating. We estimated the overall prevalence of TDP-43 using random-effect models, and stratified by age, sex, sample size, study quality, antibody used to assess TDP-43 aggregates, analysed brain regions, Braak stage, Consortium to Establish a Registry for Alzheimer's Disease score, hippocampal sclerosis and geographic location. RESULTS: A total of 505 articles were identified in the systematic review, and 7 were included in the meta-analysis with 1196 cognitively normal older adults. We found an overall prevalence of TDP-43 proteinopathy of 24%. Prevalence of TDP-43 proteinopathy varied widely across geographic location (North America: 37%, Asia: 29%, Europe: 14%, and Latin America: 11%). Estimated prevalence of TDP-43 proteinopathy also varied according to study quality (quality score >7: 22% vs. quality score <7: 42%), antibody used to assess TDP-43 proteinopathy (native: 18% vs. hyperphosphorylated: 24%) and presence of hippocampal sclerosis (without 24% vs. with hippocampal sclerosis: 48%). Other stratified analyses by age, sex, analysed brain regions, sample size and severity of AD neuropathology showed similar pooled TDP-43 prevalence. CONCLUSIONS: Different methodology to access TDP-43, and also differences in lifestyle and genetic factors across different populations could explain our results. Standardization of TDP-43 measurement, and future studies about the impact of genetic and lifestyle characteristics on the development of neurodegenerative diseases are needed.

Magnetic resonance diffusion tensor imaging for the pedunculopontine nucleus: proof of concept and histological correlation.

The pedunculopontine nucleus (PPN) has been proposed as target for deep brain stimulation (DBS) in patients with postural instability and gait disorders due to its involvement in muscle tonus adjustments and control of locomotion. However, it is a deep-seated brainstem nucleus without clear imaging or electrophysiological markers. Some studies suggested that diffusion tensor imaging (DTI) may help guiding electrode placement in the PPN by showing the surrounding fiber bundles, but none have provided a direct histological correlation. We investigated DTI fractional anisotropy (FA) maps from in vivo and in situ post-mortem magnetic resonance images (MRI) compared to histological evaluations for improving PPN targeting in humans. A post-mortem brain was scanned in a clinical 3T MR system in situ. Thereafter, the brain was processed with a special method ideally suited for cytoarchitectonic analyses. Also, nine volunteers had in vivo brain scanning using the same MRI protocol. Images from volunteers were compared to those obtained in the post-mortem study. FA values of the volunteers were obtained from PPN, inferior colliculus, cerebellar crossing fibers and medial lemniscus using histological data and atlas information. FA values in the PPN were significantly lower than in the surrounding white matter region and higher than in areas with predominantly gray matter. In Nissl-stained histologic sections, the PPN extended for more than 10 mm in the rostro-caudal axis being closely attached to the lateral parabrachial nucleus. Our DTI analyses and the spatial correlation with histological findings proposed a location for PPN that matched the position assigned to this nucleus in the literature. Coregistration of neuroimaging and cytoarchitectonic features can add value to help establishing functional architectonics of the PPN and facilitate neurosurgical targeting of this extended nucleus.

Quantifying the accretion of hyperphosphorylated tau in the locus coeruleus and dorsal raphe nucleus: the pathological building blocks of early Alzheimer's disease.

AIMS: Hyperphosphorylated tau neuronal cytoplasmic inclusions (ht-NCI) are the best protein correlate of clinical decline in Alzheimer's disease (AD). Qualitative evidence identifies ht-NCI accumulating in the isodendritic core before the entorhinal cortex. Here, we used unbiased stereology to quantify ht-NCI burden in the locus coeruleus (LC) and dorsal raphe nucleus (DRN), aiming to characterize the impact of AD pathology in these nuclei with a focus on early stages. METHODS: We utilized unbiased stereology in a sample of 48 well-characterized subjects enriched for controls and early AD stages. ht-NCI counts were estimated in 60-µm-thick sections immunostained for p-tau throughout LC and DRN. Data were integrated with unbiased estimates of LC and DRN neuronal population for a subset of cases. RESULTS: In Braak stage 0, 7.9% and 2.6% of neurons in LC and DRN, respectively, harbour ht-NCIs. Although the number of ht-NCI+ neurons significantly increased by about 1.9× between Braak stages 0 to I in LC (P = 0.02), we failed to detect any significant difference between Braak stage I and II. Also, the number of ht-NCI+ neurons remained stable in DRN between all stages 0 and II. Finally, the differential susceptibility to tau inclusions among nuclear subdivisions was more notable in LC than in DRN. CONCLUSIONS: LC and DRN neurons exhibited ht-NCI during AD precortical stages. The ht-NCI increases along AD progression on both nuclei, but quantitative changes in LC precede DRN changes.

d-serine levels in Alzheimer's disease: implications for novel biomarker development.

Alzheimer's disease (AD) is a severe neurodegenerative disorder still in search of effective methods of diagnosis. Altered levels of the NMDA receptor co-agonist, d-serine, have been associated with neurological disorders, including schizophrenia and epilepsy. However, whether d-serine levels are deregulated in AD remains elusive. Here, we first measured D-serine levels in post-mortem hippocampal and cortical samples from nondemented subjects (n=8) and AD patients (n=14). We next determined d-serine levels in experimental models of AD, including wild-type rats and mice that received intracerebroventricular injections of amyloid-ß oligomers, and APP/PS1 transgenic mice. Finally, we assessed d-serine levels in the cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) of 21 patients with a diagnosis of probable AD, as compared with patients with normal pressure hydrocephalus (n=9), major depression (n=9) and healthy controls (n=10), and results were contrasted with CSF amyloid-ß/tau AD biomarkers. d-serine levels were higher in the hippocampus and parietal cortex of AD patients than in control subjects. Levels of both d-serine and serine racemase, the enzyme responsible for d-serine production, were elevated in experimental models of AD. Significantly, d-serine levels were higher in the CSF of probable AD patients than in non-cognitively impaired subject groups. Combining d-serine levels to the amyloid/tau index remarkably increased the sensitivity and specificity of diagnosis of probable AD in our cohort. Our results show that increased brain and CSF d-serine levels are associated with AD. CSF d-serine levels discriminated between nondemented and AD patients in our cohort and might constitute a novel candidate biomarker for early AD diagnosis.

Combined enrichment of neuromelanin granules and synaptosomes from human substantia nigra pars compacta tissue for proteomic analysis.

This article gives a detailed description of a protocol using density gradient centrifugation for the enrichment of neuromelanin granules and synaptosomes from low amounts (≥0.15g) of human substantia nigra pars compacta tissue. This has a great advantage compared to already existing methods as it allows for the first time (i) a combined enrichment of neuromelanin granules and synaptosomes and (ii) just minimal amounts of tissue necessary to enable donor specific analysis. Individual specimens were classified as control or diseased according to clinical evaluation and neuropathological examination. For the enrichment of synaptosomes and neuromelanin granules from the same tissue sample density gradient centrifugations using Percoll® and Iodixanol were performed. The purity of resulting fractions was checked by transmission electron microscopy. We were able to establish a reproducible and easy to handle protocol combining two different density gradient centrifugations: using an Iodixanol gradient neuromelanin granules were enriched and in parallel, from the same sample, a fraction of synaptosomes with high purity using a Percoll® gradient was obtained. Our subfractionation strategy will enable a subsequent in depth proteomic characterization of neurodegenerative processes in the substantia nigra pars compacta in patients with Parkinson's disease and dementia with Lewy bodies compared to appropriate controls. BIOLOGICAL SIGNIFICANCE: Key features of Parkinson's disease are the degeneration of dopaminergic neurons in the substantia nigra pars compacta, an associated loss of the brain pigment neuromelanin and a resulting impairment of the neuronal network. The accumulation of iron binding neuromelanin granules is age- and disease-dependent and disease specific alterations could affect the neuronal iron homeostasis leading to oxidative stress induced cell death. The focus of the described method is the analysis of neuromelanin granules as well as axonal cell-endings of nerve cells (synaptosomes) of individual donors (control and diseased). It is the basis for the identification of disease-relevant changes in the iron homeostasis and the generation of new insight into altered protein compositions or regulations which might lead to disturbed communications between nerve cells resulting in pathogenic processes.

African ancestry protects against Alzheimer's disease-related neuropathology.

Previous studies in dementia epidemiology have reported higher Alzheimer's disease rates in African-Americans when compared with White Americans. To determine whether genetically determined African ancestry is associated with neuropathological changes commonly associated with dementia, we analyzed a population-based brain bank in the highly admixed city of São Paulo, Brazil. African ancestry was estimated through the use of previously described ancestry-informative markers. Risk of presence of neuritic plaques, neurofibrillary tangles, small vessel disease, brain infarcts and Lewy bodies in subjects with significant African ancestry versus those without was determined. Results were adjusted for multiple environmental risk factors, demographic variables and apolipoprotein E genotype. African ancestry was inversely correlated with neuritic plaques (P=0.03). Subjects with significant African ancestry (n=112, 55.4%) showed lower prevalence of neuritic plaques in the univariate analysis (odds ratio (OR) 0.72, 95% confidence interval (CI) 0.55-0.95, P=0.01) and when adjusted for age, sex, APOE genotype and environmental risk factors (OR 0.43, 95% CI 0.21-0.89, P=0.02). There were no significant differences for the presence of other neuropathological alterations. We show for the first time, using genetically determined ancestry, that African ancestry may be highly protective of Alzheimer's disease neuropathology, functioning through either genetic variants or unknown environmental factors. Epidemiological studies correlating African-American race/ethnicity with increased Alzheimer's disease rates should not be interpreted as surrogates of genetic ancestry or considered to represent African-derived populations from the developing nations such as Brazil.

Brazilian psychiatric brain bank: a new contribution tool to network studies.

There is an urgent need for expanding the number of brain banks serving psychiatric research. We describe here the Psychiatric Disorders arm of the Brain Bank of the Brazilian Aging Brain Study Group (Psy-BBBABSG), which is focused in bipolar disorder (BD) and obsessive compulsive disorder (OCD). Our protocol was designed to minimize limitations faced by previous initiatives, and to enable design-based neurostereological analyses. The Psy-BBBABSG first milestone is the collection of 10 brains each of BD and OCD patients, and matched controls. The brains are sourced from a population-based autopsy service. The clinical and psychiatric assessments were done by an expert team including psychiatrists, through an informant. One hemisphere was perfused-fixed to render an optimal fixation for conducting neurostereological studies. The other hemisphere was comprehensively dissected and frozen for molecular studies. In 20 months, we collected 36 brains. A final report was completed for 14 cases: 3 BDs, 4 major depressive disorders, 1 substance use disorder, 1 mood disorder NOS, 3 obsessive compulsive spectrum symptoms, 1 OCD and 1 schizophrenia. The majority were male (64%), and the average age at death was 67.2 ± 9.0 years. The average postmortem interval was 16 h. Three matched controls were collected. The pilot stage confirmed that the protocols are well fitted to reach our goals. Our unique autopsy source makes possible to collect a fairly number of high quality cases in a short time. Such a collection offers an additional to the international research community to advance the understanding on neuropsychiatric diseases.

Amyloid vs FDG-PET in the differential diagnosis of AD and FTLD.

OBJECTIVE: To compare the diagnostic performance of PET with the amyloid ligand Pittsburgh compound B (PiB-PET) to fluorodeoxyglucose (FDG-PET) in discriminating between Alzheimer disease (AD) and frontotemporal lobar degeneration (FTLD). METHODS: Patients meeting clinical criteria for AD (n = 62) and FTLD (n = 45) underwent PiB and FDG-PET. PiB scans were classified as positive or negative by 2 visual raters blinded to clinical diagnosis, and using a quantitative threshold derived from controls (n = 25). FDG scans were visually rated as consistent with AD or FTLD, and quantitatively classified based on the region of lowest metabolism relative to controls. RESULTS: PiB visual reads had a higher sensitivity for AD (89.5% average between raters) than FDG visual reads (77.5%) with similar specificity (PiB 83%, FDG 84%). When scans were classified quantitatively, PiB had higher sensitivity (89% vs 73%) while FDG had higher specificity (83% vs 98%). On receiver operating characteristic analysis, areas under the curve for PiB (0.888) and FDG (0.910) were similar. Interrater agreement was higher for PiB (κ = 0.96) than FDG (κ = 0.72), as was agreement between visual and quantitative classification (PiB κ = 0.88-0.92; FDG κ = 0.64-0.68). In patients with known histopathology, overall classification accuracy (2 visual and 1 quantitative classification per patient) was 97% for PiB (n = 12 patients) and 87% for FDG (n = 10). CONCLUSIONS: PiB and FDG showed similar accuracy in discriminating AD and FTLD. PiB was more sensitive when interpreted qualitatively or quantitatively. FDG was more specific, but only when scans were classified quantitatively. PiB slightly outperformed FDG in patients with known histopathology.

Neuropathologic features associated with Alzheimer disease diagnosis: age matters.

OBJECTIVE: To examine whether the association between clinical Alzheimer disease (AD) diagnosis and neuropathology and the precision by which neuropathology differentiates people with clinical AD from those with normal cognition varies by age. METHODS: We conducted a cross-sectional analysis of 2,014 older adults (≥70 years at death) from the National Alzheimer's Coordinating Center database with clinical diagnosis of normal cognition (made ≤1 year before death, n = 419) or AD (at ≥65 years, n = 1,595) and a postmortem neuropathologic examination evaluating AD pathology (neurofibrillary tangles, neuritic plaques) and non-AD pathology (diffuse plaques, amyloid angiopathy, Lewy bodies, macrovascular disease, microvascular disease). We used adjusted logistic regression to analyze the relationship between clinical AD diagnosis and neuropathologic features, area under the receiver operating characteristic curve (c statistic) to evaluate how precisely neuropathology differentiates between cognitive diagnoses, and an interaction to identify effect modification by age group. RESULTS: In a model controlling for coexisting neuropathologic features, the relationship between clinical AD diagnosis and neurofibrillary tangles was significantly weaker with increasing age (p < 0.001 for interaction). The aggregate of all neuropathologic features more strongly differentiated people with clinical AD from those without in younger age groups (70-74 years: c statistic, 95% confidence interval: 0.93, 0.89-0.96; 75-84 years: 0.95, 0.87-0.95; ≥85 years: 0.83, 0.80-0.87). Non-AD pathology significantly improved precision of differentiation across all age groups (p < 0.004). CONCLUSION: Clinical AD diagnosis was more weakly associated with neurofibrillary tangles among the oldest old compared to younger age groups, possibly due to less accurate clinical diagnosis, better neurocompensation, or unaccounted pathology among the oldest old.

The dorsal raphe nucleus shows phospho-tau neurofibrillary changes before the transentorhinal region in Alzheimer's disease. A precocious onset?

AIMS: Alzheimer's disease (AD) is a progressive and irreversible disease. There is strong evidence that the progression of the phospho-tau neurofibrillary cytoskeletal changes, rather than the beta-amyloid burden, is crucial in determining the severity of the dementia in AD. The Braak and Braak staging system (BB) focuses mainly on the cortical cytoskeletal pathology and classifies this progressive pathology into six stages, spreading from the transentorhinal region to primary cortices. Although it is reported elsewhere that the midbrain's dorsal raphe nucleus (DR), which is connected with those areas of the cerebral cortex undergoing early changes during BB I and II, exhibits AD-related cytoskeletal pathology, this nucleus has not been considered by the BB. METHODS: To determine during which BB stage and how frequently the DR is affected by AD-related neurofibrillary changes, we studied the DR of 118 well-characterized individuals of the Brain Bank of the Brazilian Aging Brain Study Group categorized according to the BB. Thirty-eight of these individuals were staged as BB = 0, and 80 as BB >or= 1. RESULTS: In all of the BB >or= 1 individuals (cortical neurofibrillary changes were present at least in the transentorhinal region) and in more than 1/5 of the BB = 0 individuals neurofibrillary changes were detected in the supratrochlear subnucleus of the DR. CONCLUSIONS: These observations: (i) support the hypothesis of transneuronal spread of neurofibrillary changes from the DR to its interconnected cortical brain areas; and (ii) indicate that the supratrochlear subnucleus of the DR is affected by neurofibrillary changes before the transentorhinal cortex during the disease process underlying AD.

ALS and FTLD: two faces of TDP-43 proteinopathy.

Major discoveries have been made in the recent past in the genetics, biochemistry and neuropathology of frontotemporal lobar degeneration (FTLD). TAR DNA-binding protein 43 (TDP-43), encoded by the TARDBP gene, has been identified as the major pathological protein of FTLD with ubiquitin-immunoreactive (ub-ir) inclusions (FTLD-U) with or without amyotrophic lateral sclerosis (ALS) and sporadic ALS. Recently, mutations in the TARDBP gene in familial and sporadic ALS have been reported which demonstrate that abnormal TDP-43 alone is sufficient to cause neurodegeneration. Several familial cases of FTLD-U, however, are now known to have mutations in the progranulin (GRN) gene, but granulin is not a component of the TDP-43- and ub-ir inclusions. Further, TDP-43 is found to be a component of the inclusions of an increasing number of neurodegenerative diseases. Other FTLD-U entities with TDP-43 proteinopathy include: FTLD-U with valosin-containing protein (VCP) gene mutation and FTLD with ALS linked to chromosome 9p. In contrast, chromosome 3-linked dementia, FTLD-U with chromatin modifying protein 2B (CHMP2B) mutation, has ub-ir, TDP-43-negative inclusions. In summary, recent discoveries have generated new insights into the pathogenesis of a spectrum of disorders called TDP-43 proteinopathies including: FTLD-U, FTLD-U with ALS, ALS, and a broadening spectrum of other disorders. It is anticipated that these discoveries and a revised nosology of FTLD will contribute toward an accurate diagnosis, and facilitate the development of new diagnostic tests and therapeutics.