Investigating the role of Caspase-1 in a mouse model of Juvenile X-linked Retinoschisis.

Purpose: Previous studies have reported Caspase-1 (Casp1) is upregulated in mouse models of Juvenile X-linked Retinoschisis (XLRS), however no functional role for Casp1 in disease progression has been identified. We performed electroretinogram (ERG) and standardized optical coherence tomography (OCT) in mice deficient in the Retinoschisin-1 (Rs1) and Casp1 and Caspase-11 (Casp11) genes (Rs1-KO;Casp1/11-/- ) to test the hypothesis that Casp1 may play a role in disease evolution and or severity of disease. Currently, no studies have ventured to investigate the longer-term effects of Casp1 on phenotypic severity and disease progression over time in XLRS, and specifically the effect on electroretinogram. Methods: Rs1-KO;Casp1/11-/- mice were generated by breeding Rs1-KO mice with Casp1/11-/- mice. OCT imaging was analyzed at 2-, 4-, and 15-16 months of age. Outer nuclear layer (ONL) thickness and adapted standardized cyst severity score were measured and averaged from 4 locations 500 µm from the optic nerve. Adapted standardized cyst severity score was 1: absent cysts, 2: <30 µm, 3: 30-49 µm, 4: 50-69 µm, 5: 70-99 µm, 6: >99 µm. Electroretinograms (ERG) were recorded in dark-adapted and light-adapted conditions at 2 and 4 months. Results obtained from Rs1-KO and Rs1-KO;Casp1/11-/- eyes were compared with age matched WT control eyes at 2 months. Results: Intraretinal schisis was not observed on OCT in WT eyes, while schisis was apparent in most Rs1-KO and Rs1-KO;Casp1/11-/- eyes at 2 and 4 months of age. There was no difference in the cyst severity score from 2 to 4 months of age, or ONL thickness from 2 to 16 months of age between Rs1-KO and Rs1-KO;Casp1/11-/- eyes. ERG amplitudes were similarly reduced in Rs1-KO and Rs1-KO;Casp1/11-/- compared to WT controls at 2 months of age, and there was no difference between Rs1-KO and Rs1-KO;Casp1/11-/- eyes at 2 or 4 months of age, suggesting no impact on the electrical function of photoreceptors over time in the absence of Casp1. Conclusion: Although Casp1 has been reported to be significantly upregulated in Rs1-KO mice, our preliminary data suggest that removing Casp1/11 does not modulate photoreceptor electrical function or alter the trajectory of the retinal architecture over time.

LRRK2 G2019S Promotes Colon Cancer Potentially via LRRK2-GSDMD Axis-Mediated Gut Inflammation.

Leucine-rich repeat kinase 2 (LRRK2) is a serine-threonine protein kinase belonging to the ROCO protein family. Within the kinase domain of LRRK2, a point mutation known as LRRK2 G2019S has emerged as the most prevalent variant associated with Parkinson's disease. Recent clinical studies have indicated that G2019S carriers have an elevated risk of cancers, including colon cancer. Despite this observation, the underlying mechanisms linking LRRK2 G2019S to colon cancer remain elusive. In this study, employing a colitis-associated cancer (CAC) model and LRRK2 G2019S knock-in (KI) mouse model, we demonstrate that LRRK2 G2019S promotes the pathogenesis of colon cancer, characterized by increased tumor number and size in KI mice. Furthermore, LRRK2 G2019S enhances intestinal epithelial cell proliferation and inflammation within the tumor microenvironment. Mechanistically, KI mice exhibit heightened susceptibility to DSS-induced colitis, with inhibition of LRRK2 kinase activity ameliorating colitis severity and CAC progression. Our investigation also reveals that LRRK2 G2019S promotes inflammasome activation and exacerbates gut epithelium necrosis in the colitis model. Notably, GSDMD inhibitors attenuate colitis in LRRK2 G2019S KI mice. Taken together, our findings offer experimental evidence indicating that the gain-of-kinase activity in LRRK2 promotes colorectal tumorigenesis, suggesting LRRK2 as a potential therapeutic target in colon cancer patients exhibiting hyper LRRK2 kinase activity.

LRRK2 G2019S promotes the development of colon cancer via modulating intestinal inflammation.

LRRK2 G2019S is the most prevalent variant associated with Parkinson's disease (PD), found in 1-3% of sporadic and 4-8% of familial PD cases. Intriguingly, emerging clinical studies have suggested that LRRK2 G2019S carriers have an increased risk of cancers including colorectal cancer. However, the underlying mechanisms of the positive correlation between LRRK2-G2019S and colorectal cancer remain unknown. Using a mouse model of colitis-associated cancer (CAC) and LRRK2 G2019S knockin (KI) mice, here we report that LRRK2 G2019S promotes the pathogenesis of colon cancer as evidenced by increased tumor number and tumor size in LRRK2 G2019S KI mice. LRRK2 G2019S promoted intestinal epithelial cell proliferation and inflammation within the tumor microenvironment. Mechanistically, we found that LRRK2 G2019S KI mice are more susceptible to dextran sulfate sodium (DSS)-induced colitis. Suppressing the kinase activity of LRRK2 ameliorated the severity of colitis in both LRRK2 G2019S KI and WT mice. At the molecular level, our investigation unveiled that LRRK2 G2019S promotes the production of reactive oxygen species, triggers inflammasome activation, and induces cell necrosis in the gut epithelium in a mouse model of colitis. Collectively, our data provide direct evidence that gain-of-kinase activity in LRRK2 promotes colorectal tumorigenesis, implicating LRRK2 as a potential target in colon cancer patients with hyper LRRK2 kinase activity.

Chalcone: A potential scaffold for NLRP3 inflammasome inhibitors.

Overactivated NLRP3 inflammasome has been shown to associate with an increasing number of disease conditions. Activation of the NLRP3 inflammasome results in caspase-1-catalyzed formation of active pro-inflammatory cytokines (IL-1ß and IL-18) resulting in pyroptosis. The multi-protein composition of the NLRP3 inflammasome and its sensitivity to several damage-associated molecular patterns (DAMPs) and pathogen-associated molecular patterns (PAMPs) make this extensively studied inflammasome an attractive target to treat chronic conditions. However, none of the known NLRP3 inhibitors has been approved for clinical use. Sulfonylurea and covalent inhibitors with electrophilic warhead (Michael acceptor) are among the prominent classes of compounds explored for their NLRP3 inhibitory effects. Chalcone, a small molecule with α, ß unsaturated carbonyl group (Michael acceptor), has also been studied as a promising scaffold for the development of NLRP3 inhibitors. Low molecular weight, easy to manipulate lipophilicity and cost-effectiveness have attracted many to use chalcone scaffold for drug development. In this review, we highlight chalcone derivatives with NLRP3 inflammasome inhibitory activities. Recent developments and potential new directions summarized here will, hopefully, serve as valuable perspectives for investigators including medicinal chemists and drug discovery researchers to utilize chalcone as a scaffold for developing novel NLRP3 inflammasome inhibitors.

CD47 halts Ptpn6-deficient neutrophils from provoking lethal inflammation.

Mice with SHP1 proteins, which have a single amino acid substitution from tyrosine-208 residue to asparagine (hereafter Ptpn6spin mice), develop an autoinflammatory disease with inflamed footpads. Genetic crosses to study CD47 function in Ptpn6spin mice bred Ptpn6spin × Cd47-/- mice that were not born at the expected Mendelian ratio. Ptpn6spin bone marrow cells, when transferred into lethally irradiated Cd47-deficient mice, caused marked weight loss and subsequent death. At a cellular level, Ptpn6-deficient neutrophils promoted weight loss and death of the lethally irradiated Cd47-/- recipients. We posited that leakage of gut microbiota promotes morbidity and mortality in Cd47-/- mice receiving Ptpn6spin cells. Colonic cell death and gut leakage were substantially increased in the diseased Cd47-/- mice. Last, IL-1 blockade using anakinra rescued the morbidity and mortality observed in the diseased Cd47-/- mice. These data together demonstrate a protective role for CD47 in tempering pathogenic neutrophils in the Ptpn6spin mice.

AIM2 sensors mediate immunity to Plasmodium infection in hepatocytes.

Malaria, caused by Plasmodium parasites is a severe disease affecting millions of people around the world. Plasmodium undergoes obligatory development and replication in the hepatocytes, before initiating the life-threatening blood-stage of malaria. Although the natural immune responses impeding Plasmodium infection and development in the liver are key to controlling clinical malaria and transmission, those remain relatively unknown. Here we demonstrate that the DNA of Plasmodium parasites is sensed by cytosolic AIM2 (absent in melanoma 2) receptors in the infected hepatocytes, resulting in Caspase-1 activation. Remarkably, Caspase-1 was observed to undergo unconventional proteolytic processing in hepatocytes, resulting in the activation of the membrane pore-forming protein, Gasdermin D, but not inflammasome-associated proinflammatory cytokines. Nevertheless, this resulted in the elimination of Plasmodium-infected hepatocytes and the control of malaria infection in the liver. Our study uncovers a pathway of natural immunity critical for the control of malaria in the liver.

CD4 expression in effector T cells depends on DNA demethylation over a developmentally established stimulus-responsive element.

The epigenetic patterns that are established during early thymic development might determine mature T cell physiology and function, but the molecular basis and topography of the genetic elements involved are not fully known. Here we show, using the Cd4 locus as a paradigm for early developmental programming, that DNA demethylation during thymic development licenses a novel stimulus-responsive element that is critical for the maintenance of Cd4 gene expression in effector T cells. We document the importance of maintaining high CD4 expression during parasitic infection and show that by driving transcription, this stimulus-responsive element allows for the maintenance of histone H3K4me3 levels during T cell replication, which is critical for preventing de novo DNA methylation at the Cd4 promoter. A failure to undergo epigenetic programming during development leads to gene silencing during effector T cell replication. Our study thus provides evidence of early developmental events shaping the functional fitness of mature effector T cells.

Hemozoin-mediated inflammasome activation limits long-lived anti-malarial immunity.

During acute malaria, most individuals mount robust inflammatory responses that limit parasite burden. However, long-lived sterilizing anti-malarial memory responses are not efficiently induced, even following repeated Plasmodium exposures. Using multiple Plasmodium species, genetically modified parasites, and combinations of host genetic and pharmacologic approaches, we find that the deposition of the malarial pigment hemozoin directly limits the abundance and capacity of conventional type 1 dendritic cells to prime helper T cell responses. Hemozoin-induced dendritic cell dysfunction results in aberrant Plasmodium-specific CD4 T follicular helper cell differentiation, which constrains memory B cell and long-lived plasma cell formation. Mechanistically, we identify that dendritic cell-intrinsic NLRP3 inflammasome activation reduces conventional type 1 dendritic cell abundance, phagocytosis, and T cell priming functions in vivo. These data identify biological consequences of hemozoin deposition during malaria and highlight the capacity of the malarial pigment to program immune evasion during the earliest events following an initial Plasmodium exposure.

Chalcone and its analogs: Therapeutic and diagnostic applications in Alzheimer's disease.

Chalcone [(E)-1,3-diphenyl-2-propene-1-one], a small molecule with α, ß unsaturated carbonyl group is a precursor or component of many natural flavonoids and isoflavonoids. It is one of the privileged structures in medicinal chemistry. It possesses a wide range of biological activities encouraging many medicinal chemists to study this scaffold for its usefulness to oncology, infectious diseases, virology and neurodegenerative diseases including Alzheimer's disease (AD). Small molecular size, convenient and cost-effective synthesis, and flexibility for modifications to modulate lipophilicity suitable for blood brain barrier (BBB) permeability make chalcones a preferred candidate for their therapeutic and diagnostic potential in AD. This review summarizes and highlights the importance of chalcone and its analogs as single target small therapeutic agents, multi-target directed ligands (MTDLs) as well as molecular imaging agents for AD. The information summarized here will guide many medicinal chemist and researchers involved in drug discovery to consider chalcone as a potential scaffold for the development of anti-AD agents including theranostics.

Ets-2 deletion in myeloid cells attenuates IL-1α-mediated inflammatory disease caused by a Ptpn6 point mutation.

The SHP-1 protein encoded by the Ptpn6 gene has been extensively studied in hematopoietic cells in the context of inflammation. A point mutation in this gene (Ptpn6spin) causes spontaneous inflammation in mice, which has a striking similarity to neutrophilic dermatoses in humans. Recent findings highlighted the role of signaling adapters and kinases in promoting inflammation in Ptpn6spin mice; however, the underlying transcriptional regulation is poorly understood. Here, we report that SYK is important for driving neutrophil infiltration and initiating wound healing responses in Ptpn6spin mice. Moreover, we found that deletion of the transcription factor Ets2 in myeloid cells ameliorates cutaneous inflammatory disease in Ptpn6spin mice through transcriptional regulation of its target inflammatory genes. Furthermore, Ets-2 drives IL-1α-mediated inflammatory signaling in neutrophils of Ptpn6spin mice. Overall, in addition to its well-known role in driving inflammation in cancer, Ets-2 plays a major role in regulating IL-1α-driven Ptpn6spin-mediated neutrophilic dermatoses. Model for the role of ETS-2 in neutrophilic inflammation in Ptpn6spin mice. Mutation of the Ptpn6 gene results in SYK phosphorylation which then sequentially activates MAPK signaling pathways and activation of ETS-2. This leads to activation of ETS-2 target genes that contribute to neutrophil migration and inflammation. When Ets2 is deleted in Ptpn6spin mice, the expression of these target genes is reduced, leading to the reduced pathology in neutrophilic dermatoses.

Acute IL-4 Governs Pathogenic T Cell Responses during Leishmania major Infection.

Leishmania spp. infection is a global health problem affecting more than 2 million people every year with 300 million at risk worldwide. It is well established that a dominant Th1 response (IFN-γ, a hallmark Th1 cytokine) provides resistance, whereas a dominant Th2 response (IL-4, a hallmark Th2 cytokine) confers susceptibility during infection. Given the important role of IL-4 during L. major infection, we used IL-4-neutralizing Abs to investigate the cellular and molecular events regulated by IL-4 signaling. As previously published, neutralization of IL-4 in L. major-infected BALB/c mice (a Leishmania susceptible strain) provided protection when compared with control L. major-infected BALB/c mice. Despite this protection, IFN-γ production by T cells was dramatically reduced. Temporal neutralization of IL-4 revealed that acute IL-4 produced within the first days of infection is critical for not only programming IL-4-producing Th2 CD4+ T cells, but for promoting IFN-γ produced by CD8+ T cells. Mechanistically, IL-4 signaling enhances anti-CD3-induced Tbet and IFN-γ expression in both CD4+ and CD8+ T cells. Given the pathogenic role of IFN-γ-producing CD8+ T cells, our data suggest that IL-4 promotes cutaneous leishmaniasis pathology by not only promoting Th2 immune responses but also pathogenic CD8+ T cell responses. Our studies open new research grounds to investigate the unsuspected role of IL-4 in regulating both Th1 and Th2 responses.

Reconciling protective and pathogenic roles of the NLRP3 inflammasome in leishmaniasis.

Leishmaniasis is a global health problem that affects more than 2 billion people worldwide. Recent advances in research have demonstrated critical roles for cytoplasmic sensors and inflammasomes during Leishmania spp. infection and pathogenesis. Specifically, several studies have focused on the role of nod-like receptor family, pyrin domain-containing protein 3 (NLRP3) inflammasome and inflammasome-associated cytokines IL-1ß and IL-18 in leishmaniasis. Despite these studies, our understanding of the priming and activation events that lead to NLRP3 inflammasome activation during Leishmania spp. infection is limited. Furthermore, whether NLRP3 plays a protective or pathogenic role during Leishmania spp. infection is far from resolved, with some studies showing a protective role and others showing a pathogenic role. In this review, we performed a critical review of the literature to provide a current update on priming and activating signals required for NLRP3 inflammasome activation during Leishmania spp. infection. Finally, we provide a thorough review of the literature to reconcile differences in the observed protective vs pathogenic roles of the NLRP3 inflammasome during Leishmania spp. infection.

Neutro"feels" lethal toxin.

Discussion on lethal toxin-induced acute IL-1ß production as dependent on NLRP1b and caspase-1, PAD4, cell-free DNA and neutrophils.

Recent Advances in Lipopolysaccharide Recognition Systems.

Lipopolysaccharide (LPS), commonly known as endotoxin, is ubiquitous and the most-studied pathogen-associated molecular pattern. A component of Gram-negative bacteria, extracellular LPS is sensed by our immune system via the toll-like receptor (TLR)-4. Given that TLR4 is membrane bound, it recognizes LPS in the extracellular milieu or within endosomes. Whether additional sensors, if any, play a role in LPS recognition within the cytoplasm remained unknown until recently. The last decade has seen an unprecedented unfolding of TLR4-independent LPS sensing pathways. First, transient receptor potential (TRP) channels have been identified as non-TLR membrane-bound sensors of LPS and, second, caspase-4/5 (and caspase-11 in mice) have been established as the cytoplasmic sensors for LPS. Here in this review, we detail the brief history of LPS discovery, followed by the discovery of TLR4, TRP as the membrane-bound sensor, and our current understanding of caspase-4/5/11 as cytoplasmic sensors.

The nonreceptor tyrosine kinase SYK drives caspase-8/NLRP3 inflammasome-mediated autoinflammatory osteomyelitis.

Chronic recurrent multifocal osteomyelitis (CRMO) in humans can be modeled in Pstpip2cmo mice, which carry a missense mutation in the proline-serine-threonine phosphatase-interacting protein 2 (Pstpip2) gene. As cmo disease in mice, the experimental model analogous to human CRMO, is mediated specifically by IL-1ß and not by IL-1α, delineating the molecular pathways contributing to pathogenic IL-1ß production is crucial to developing targeted therapies. In particular, our earlier findings support redundant roles of NLR family pyrin domain-containing 3 (NLRP3) and caspase-1 with caspase-8 in instigating cmo However, the signaling components upstream of caspase-8 and pro-IL-1ß cleavage in Pstpip2cmo mice are not well-understood. Therefore, here we investigated the signaling pathways in these mice and discovered a central role of a nonreceptor tyrosine kinase, spleen tyrosine kinase (SYK), in mediating osteomyelitis. Using several mutant mouse strains, immunoblotting, and microcomputed tomography, we demonstrate that absent in melanoma 2 (AIM2), receptor-interacting serine/ threonine protein kinase 3 (RIPK3), and caspase recruitment domain-containing protein 9 (CARD9) are each dispensable for osteomyelitis induction in Pstpip2cmo mice, whereas genetic deletion of Syk completely abrogates the disease phenotype. We further show that SYK centrally mediates signaling upstream of caspase-1 and caspase-8 activation and principally up-regulates NF-κB and IL-1ß signaling in Pstpip2cmo mice, thereby inducing cmo These results provide a rationale for directly targeting SYK and its downstream signaling components in CRMO.

Innate immune priming in the absence of TAK1 drives RIPK1 kinase activity-independent pyroptosis, apoptosis, necroptosis, and inflammatory disease.

RIPK1 kinase activity has been shown to be essential to driving pyroptosis, apoptosis, and necroptosis. However, here we show a kinase activity-independent role for RIPK1 in these processes using a model of TLR priming in a TAK1-deficient setting to mimic pathogen-induced priming and inhibition. TLR priming of TAK1-deficient macrophages triggered inflammasome activation, including the activation of caspase-8 and gasdermin D, and the recruitment of NLRP3 and ASC into a novel RIPK1 kinase activity-independent cell death complex to drive pyroptosis and apoptosis. Furthermore, we found fully functional RIPK1 kinase activity-independent necroptosis driven by the RIPK3-MLKL pathway in TAK1-deficient macrophages. In vivo, TAK1 inactivation resulted in RIPK3-caspase-8 signaling axis-driven myeloid proliferation and a severe sepsis-like syndrome. Overall, our study highlights a previously unknown mechanism for RIPK1 kinase activity-independent inflammasome activation and pyroptosis, apoptosis, and necroptosis (PANoptosis) that could be targeted for treatment of TAK1-associated myeloid proliferation and sepsis.

Leishmania major degrades murine CXCL1 - An immune evasion strategy.

Leishmaniasis is a global health problem with an estimated report of 2 million new cases every year and more than 1 billion people at risk of contracting this disease in endemic areas. The innate immune system plays a central role in controlling L. major infection by initiating a signaling cascade that results in production of pro-inflammatory cytokines and recruitment of both innate and adaptive immune cells. Upon infection with L. major, CXCL1 is produced locally and plays an important role in the recruitment of neutrophils to the site of infection. Herein, we report that L. major specifically targets murine CXCL1 for degradation. The degradation of CXCL1 is not dependent on host factors as L. major can directly degrade recombinant CXCL1 in a cell-free system. Using mass spectrometry, we discovered that the L. major protease cleaves at the C-terminal end of murine CXCL1. Finally, our data suggest that L. major metalloproteases are involved in the direct cleavage and degradation of CXCL1, and a synthetic peptide spanning the CXCL1 cleavage site can be used to inhibit L. major metalloprotease activity. In conclusion, our study has identified an immune evasion strategy employed by L. major to evade innate immune responses in mice, likely reservoirs in the endemic areas, and further highlights that targeting these L. major metalloproteases may be important in controlling infection within the reservoir population and transmittance of the disease.

Loss of RHBDF2 results in an early-onset spontaneous murine colitis.

Inflammatory bowel disease (IBD) is a heterogeneous group of inflammation-mediated pathologies that include Crohn's disease and ulcerative colitis and primarily affects the colon and small intestine. Previous studies have shown that a disintegrin and metalloprotease (ADAM) 17, a membrane-bound sheddase, capable of cleaving the proinflammatory cytokine TNF and epidermal growth factor receptor ligands, plays a critical role in maintaining gut homeostasis and modulating intestinal inflammation during IBD. Rhomboid 5 homolog 2 (RHBDF2), a catalytically inactive member of the rhomboid family of intramembrane serine proteases, was recently identified as a crucial regulator of ADAM17. Here, we assessed the role of RHBDF2 in the development of colitis in the context of IL10 deficiency. Il10-/- /Rhbdf2-/- mice developed spontaneous colitis and experienced severe weight loss starting at 8 wk of age, without the need for exogenous triggers. Severity of disease pathology in Il10-/- /Rhbdf2-/- mice correlated with a dysbiotic gut microbiota and elevated Th1-associated immune responses with increased interferon gamma and IL2 production. In addition, Il10-/- /Rhbdf2-/- mice failed to maintain their epithelial cell homeostasis, although the intestinal epithelial barrier of Rhbdf2-/- mice is intact and loss of Rhbdf2 did not significantly exacerbate sensitivity to dextran sulfate sodium-induced colitis, suggesting differences in the underlying disease pathway of intestinal inflammation in this model. Taken together, our results demonstrate a critical regulatory role for RHBDF2 in the maintenance of the unique homeostasis between intestinal microbiota and host immune responses in the gut that is dysregulated during the pathogenesis of IBD.

Innate immune adaptor MyD88 deficiency prevents skin inflammation in SHARPIN-deficient mice.

Mice deficient in SHANK-associated RH domain-interacting protein (SHARPIN), a component of the linear ubiquitin chain assembly complex (LUBAC), develop a spontaneous inflammatory disorder with pathologic hallmarks similar to atopic dermatitis and psoriasis in humans. Previous studies identified the crucial role of components of the TNF and IL-1 signaling pathways in the progression of disease in SHARPIN-deficient mice. However, an innate immune adaptor or sensor that relates to the disease progression has remained unknown. In this study, we found that the genetic ablation of myeloid differentiation primary response 88 (MyD88) completely rescued skin inflammation in SHARPIN-deficient (Sharpincpdm) mice. Systemic inflammation and immune cell dysregulation were partially rescued. Fibroblasts derived from SharpincpdmMyd88-/- mice failed to provide protection against TNF-induced cell death. SharpincpdmMyd88-/- mice had reduced TNF production in their skin. Furthermore, depletion of the microbiota through the oral administration of antibiotics (ABX) partially rescued both the skin inflammation and systemic inflammation, demonstrating a role for the gut microbiota in SHARPIN-deficient mice. Our findings suggest a detrimental role for the innate immune adaptor MyD88 in instigating skin inflammation in Sharpincpdm mice.