Human- common hippo (Hippopotamus amphibius)-conflict in the Dhidhessa Wildlife Sanctuary and its surrounding, Southwestern Ethiopia.

The common hippopotamus (Hippopotamus amphibius) is one of the most endangered mega herbivore in Africa. Although the human-hippo conflict (HHC) is currently escalating due to habitat loss, little is known about the scope of the conflict and potential mitigation measures. From 2021 to 2022, the extent of HHC, the perception of local inhabitants towards the animal, and its impacts on the conservation of the hippo were assessed within and in the surrounding areas of Dhidhessa Wildlife Sanctuary, southwestern Ethiopia. A total of 227 households were used as a data sources, participating in the questionnaire survey, focus group discussion and key informant interviews. Direct field observations were also used as key data source. Crop raiding and damage (63%, n = 143), was the most severely reported source of conflict, followed by direct human attack (22.9%, n = 52). Livestock predation and increased hippo mortality were also common types of HHC in the area. According to the study, the majority of respondents (74.4%, n = 169) agreed that the trend of conflict was increasing, while 16.7% (n = 38) argued that there was no change. Food scarcities in the buffer zone, as well as agricultural expansion in the area, have been identified as major drivers of HHC. The majority of respondents had a negative attitude toward hippo conservation; however, there were differences based on gender, age, and educational level. The major traditional hippo conflict mitigation strategies in the area include guarding, fencing, and trenching. Field observation revealed that a large extent of the former grazing and ranging areas of hippo in the area are heavily encroached and taken over by large private and public agricultural investments. Vacating and recovering at least the former buffer areas dedicated to the wildlife in the area and modern, non-lethal mitigation strategies are recommended for better conservation and safeguarding of the currently good-sized hippo population of the sanctuary.

Wildlife roadkill in Southwestern Ethiopia: Hotspots, drivers, and victim species.

Wildlife-vehicle collision (WVC) is one of the major causes of wildlife mortality and a concern for conservationists worldwide. The study of roadkill data that can be used to develop appropriate measures and strategies for both wildlife conservation and traffic safety to mitigate the WVC and animals' mortality. Extensive studies have been conducted in the developed countries on the identification of WVC hotspots and its potential impact; however, less attention is given in developing countries. Because of this, the problem is not well understood in developing countries. This study was intended to identify victim species, hotspot areas for roadkill, and factors that contribute to WVC in Jimma Zone, along three roads leading from Jimma City. Data were collected using a citizen science approach and a skilled man power road survey (March-September 2022) to document the number and type of species killed. Three road segments (135 km in total) were surveyed weekly as a baseline for future research. All statistical analyses were carried out using R-software. In the present study, a total of 84 roadkill specimens were collected from 16 different mammal species, of which 85.7% were medium-sized carnivores. The findings showed that Jackals (Canis mesomalis and Canis adustus) were the most frequently killed species (25%, n is 21), followed by Civettictis civetta (22.62%, n is 19). The study revealed that the major factors causing collisions include habitat type (forest cover) and wildlife behavior (nocturnal or diurnal). Further, the study revealed that the majority of WVC occurred at night (dusk) and at dawn in areas that are covered with dense forests. To minimize the potential risks of WVC and animals' mortality, we suggest putting warning signs in hotspot areas where roadkill usually occur frequently. In addition, we recommend creating awareness among drivers, traffic police, and all communities about the negative impacts and consequences of collisions on the ecological and economic value of wildlife.

Foraging ecology of African wolves (Canis lupaster) and its implications for the conservation of Ethiopian wolves (Canis simensis).

African wolves (AWs) are sympatric with endangered Ethiopian wolves (EWs) in parts of their range. Scat analyses have suggested a dietary overlap between AWs and EWs, raising the potential for exploitative competition, and a possible conservation threat to EWs. However, in contrast to that of the well-studied EW, the foraging ecology of AWs remains poorly characterized. Accordingly, we studied the foraging ecology of radio-collared AWs (n = 11 individuals) at two localities with varying levels of anthropogenic disturbance in the Ethiopian Highlands, the Guassa-Menz Community Conservation Area (GMCCA) and Borena-Saynt National Park (BSNP), accumulating 845 h of focal observation across 2952 feeding events. We also monitored rodent abundance and rodent trapping activity by local farmers who experience conflict with AWs. The AW diet consisted largely of rodents (22.0%), insects (24.8%), and goats and sheep (24.3%). Of the total rodents captured by farmers using local traps during peak barley production (July to November) in GMCCA, averaging 24.7 ± 8.5 rodents/hectare/day, 81% (N = 3009) were scavenged by AWs. Further, of all the rodents consumed by AWs, most (74%) were carcasses. These results reveal complex interactions between AWs and local farmers, and highlight the scavenging niche occupied by AWs in anthropogenically altered landscapes in contrast to the active hunting exhibited by EWs in more intact habitats. While AWs cause economic damage to local farmers through livestock predation, they appear to play an important role in scavenging pest rodents among farmlands, a pattern of behaviour which likely mitigates direct and indirect competition with EWs. We suggest two routes to promote the coexistence of AWs and EWs in the Ethiopian highlands: local education efforts highlighting the complex role AWs play in highland ecosystems to reduce their persecution, and enforced protection of intact habitats to preserve habitat preferred by EWs.

Competition between sympatric wolf taxa: an example involving African and Ethiopian wolves.

Carnivore populations are declining globally due to range contraction, persecution and prey depletion. One consequence of these patterns is increased range and niche overlap with other carnivores, and thus an elevated potential for competitive exclusion. Here, we document competition between an endangered canid, the Ethiopian wolf (EW), and the newly discovered African wolf (AW) in central Ethiopia. The diet of the ecological specialist EW was dominated by rodents, whereas the AW consumed a more diverse diet also including insects and non-rodent mammals. EWs used predominantly intact habitat, whereas AWs used mostly areas disturbed by humans and their livestock. We observed 82 encounters between the two species, of which 94% were agonistic. The outcomes of agonistic encounters followed a territory-specific dominance pattern, with EWs dominating in intact habitat and AWs in human-disturbed areas. For AWs, the likelihood of winning encounters also increased with group size. Rodent species consumed by EWs were also available in the human-disturbed areas, suggesting that these areas could be suitable habitat for EWs if AWs were not present. Increasing human encroachment not only affects the prey base of EWs, but also may impact their survival by intensifying competition with sympatric AWs.

CAPTURE AND IMMOBILIZATION OF AFRICAN WOLVES ( CANIS LUPASTER) IN THE ETHIOPIAN HIGHLANDS.

: We captured 14 individual African wolves ( Canis lupaster) a total of 16 times in the Ethiopian Highlands in April 2015 and March 2016 by using rubber-lined foothold traps and immobilized them with dexmedetomidine-ketamine. Traps were baited with sheep meat and surveyed every 2 h. Capture efficiency (number of captures per number of visits) was 0.94, and capture rate (number of captures per number of trap nights) was 0.24. Trapped wolves were immobilized with 0.025 mg/kg dexmedetomidine and 8-10 mg/kg ketamine on the basis of respective estimated body mass. Mean (SD) induction times were 3.4 (0.5) min for subadults ( n=4), 3.5 (0.3) min for adult males ( n=4), and 4.7 (1.0) min for adult females ( n=6). Inductions were calm, muscle relaxation was good, and all animals were completely immobilized. Apart from increased rectal temperatures, no major negative side effects were observed. Atipamezole at 10 mg intramuscularly per milligram of dexmedetomidine administered was used for reversal at a mean of 43.5 (7.7) min after administration of dexmedetomidine-ketamine. Recoveries were relatively smooth, and animals were on feet, leaving the site within a mean of 13.6 (3.9) min, after atipamezole administration. Our results indicate that African wolves can be safely captured and immobilized by using rubber-lined foothold traps and dexmedetomidine and ketamine.