Presence and potential distribution of malaria-infected New World primates of Costa Rica.

BACKGROUND: In South and Central America, Plasmodium malariae/Plasmodium brasilianum, Plasmodium vivax, Plasmodium simium, and Plasmodium falciparum has been reported in New World primates (NWP). Specifically in Costa Rica, the presence of monkeys positive to P. malariae/P brasilianum has been identified in both captivity and in the wild. The aim of the present study was to determine the presence of P. brasilianum, P. falciparum, and P. vivax, and the potential distribution of these parasites-infecting NWP from Costa Rica. METHODS: The locations with PCR (Polymerase Chain Reaction) positive results and bioclimatic predictors were used to construct ecological niche models based on a modelling environment that uses the Maxent algorithm, named kuenm, capable to manage diverse settings to better estimate the potential distributions and uncertainty indices of the potential distribution. RESULTS: PCR analysis for the Plasmodium presence was conducted in 384 samples of four primates (Howler monkey [n = 130], White-face monkey [n = 132], Squirrel monkey [n = 50], and red spider monkey [n = 72]), from across Costa Rica. Three Plasmodium species were detected in all primate species (P. falciparum, P. malariae/P. brasilianum, and P. vivax). Overall, the infection prevalence was 8.9%, but each Plasmodium species ranged 2.1-3.4%. The niche model approach showed that the Pacific and the Atlantic coastal regions of Costa Rica presented suitable climatic conditions for parasite infections. However, the central pacific coast has a more trustable prediction for malaria in primates. CONCLUSIONS: The results indicate that the regions with higher suitability for Plasmodium transmission in NWP coincide with regions where most human cases have been reported. These regions were also previously identified as areas with high suitability for vector species, suggesting that enzootic and epizootic cycles occur.

Major histocompatibility complex class II DR and DQ evolution and variation in wild capuchin monkey species (Cebinae).

The major histocompatibility complex (MHC) is an important gene complex contributing to adaptive immunity. Studies of platyrrhine MHC have focused on identifying experimental models of immune system function in the equivalent Human Leukocyte Antigen (HLA). These genes have thus been explored primarily in captive platyrrhine individuals from research colonies. However, investigations of standing MHC variation and evolution in wild populations are essential to understanding its role in immunity, sociality and ecology. Capuchins are a promising model group exhibiting the greatest habitat diversity, widest diet breadth and arguably the most social complexity among platyrrhines, together likely resulting in varied immunological challenges. We use high-throughput sequencing to characterize polymorphism in four Class II DR and DQ exons for the first time in seven capuchin species. We find evidence for at least three copies for DQ genes and at least five for DRB, with possible additional unrecovered diversity. Our data also reveal common genotypes that are inherited across our most widely sampled population, Cebus imitator in Sector Santa Rosa, Costa Rica. Notably, phylogenetic analyses reveal that platyrrhine DQA sequences form a monophyletic group to the exclusion of all Catarrhini sequences examined. This result is inconsistent with the trans-species hypothesis for MHC evolution across infraorders in Primates and provides further evidence for the independent origin of current MHC genetic diversity in Platyrrhini. Identical allele sharing across cebid species, and more rarely genera, however, does underscore the complexity of MHC gene evolution and the need for more comprehensive assessments of allelic diversity and genome structure.

Serosurvey of Nonhuman Primates in Costa Rica at the Human-Wildlife Interface Reveals High Exposure to Flaviviruses.

Arthropod-borne viruses belonging to the flavivirus genus possess an enormous relevance in public health. Neotropical non-human primates (NPs) have been proposed to be susceptible to flavivirus infections due to their arboreal and diurnal habits, their genetic similarity to humans, and their relative closeness to humans. However, the only known flavivirus in the American continent maintained by sylvatic cycles involving NPs is yellow fever virus (YFV), and NPs' role as potential hosts of other flaviviruses is still unknown. Here, we examined flavivirus exposure in 86 serum samples including 83.7% samples from free-range and 16.3% from captive NPs living in flavivirus-endemic regions of Costa Rica. Serum samples were opportunistically collected throughout Costa Rica in 2000-2015. We used a highly specific micro-plaque reduction neutralization test (micro-PRNT) to determine the presence of antibodies against YFV, dengue virus 1-4 (DENV), Zika virus, West Nile virus (WNV), and Saint Louis encephalitis virus (SLEV). We found evidence of seropositive NPs with homotypic reactivity to SLEV 11.6% (10/86), DENV 10.5% (9/86), and WNV 2.3% (2/86). Heterotypic reactivity was determined in 3.5% (3/86) of individuals against DENV, 1.2% (1/86) against SLEV, and 1.2% (1/86) against WNV. We found that 13.9% (12/86) of NPs were positive for an undetermined flavivirus species. No antibodies against DENV-3, DENV-4, YFV, or ZIKV were found. This work provides compelling serological evidence of flavivirus exposure in Costa Rican NPs, in particular to DENV, SLEV, and WNV. The range of years of sampling and the region from where positives were detected coincide with those in which peaks of DENV in human populations were registered, suggesting bidirectional exposure due to human-wildlife contact or bridging vectors. Our work suggests the continuous exposure of wildlife populations to various flaviviruses of public health importance and underscores the necessity of further surveillance of flaviviruses at the human-wildlife interface in Central America.

Environmental factors associated With Toxoplasma gondii Exposure in Neotropical Primates of Costa Rica.

The apicomplexan parasite Toxoplasma gondii (T. gondii) has been found in more than 350 species of homoeothermic vertebrates in diverse climates and geographic areas. In most animals, T. gondii produces mild or asymptomatic infection. However, acute and hyperacute toxoplasmosis is associated with high mortality rates observed in Neotropical primates (NP) in captivity. These primates are distributed in 20 countries across the Americas, and although infection has been reported in certain countries and species, toxoplasmosis in the wild and its impact on NP population survival is unknown. Differences among species in exposure rates and disease susceptibility may be due in part to differences in host behavior and ecology. Four species of NP are found in Costa Rica, i.e., howler (Alouatta palliata), spider (Ateles geoffroyi), capuchin (Cebus imitator), and squirrel monkeys (Saimiri oerstedii). This study reports NP exposure to T. gondii using the modified agglutination test in 245 serum samples of NP (198 wild and 47 from captivity) from Costa Rica. Associations of serostatus with environmental (forest cover, annual mean temperature), anthropogenic (human population density), and biological (sex) variables in howler and capuchin monkeys were evaluated. The seroprevalence among wild NP was 11.6% (95% CI = 7.7-17.34), compared with 60% in captive monkeys (95% CI = 44.27-73.63), with significant differences between species (X 2 = 20.072; df = 3, p = 0.000164), suggesting an effect of behavior and ecology. In general, antibody titers were low for wild NP (<1:128) and high for captive NP (>1:8192), suggesting higher exposure due to management factors and increased life span in captivity. Seropositivity in howler monkeys was positively related to forest cover and inversely related to annual rainfall. For capuchins, annual rainfall was inversely related to seropositivity. Surveillance of T. gondii exposure in NP in captivity and in the wild is required to understand drivers of the infection and develop novel strategies to protect them.

Bocaparvovirus, Erythroparvovirus and Tetraparvovirus in New World Primates from Central America.

Parvoviruses in the genera Bocaparvovirus (HBoV), Erythroparvovirus (B19) and Tetraparvovirus (PARV4) are the only autonomous parvoviruses known to be associated with human and non-human primates based on studies and clinical cases in humans worldwide and non-human primates in Asia and Africa. Here, the presence of these agents with pathogenic potential was assessed by PCR in blood and faeces from 55 howler monkeys, 112 white-face monkeys, 3 squirrel monkeys and 127 spider monkeys in Costa Rica and El Salvador. Overall, 3.7% (11/297) of the monkeys had HboV DNA, 0.67% (2/297) had B19 DNA, and 14.1% (42/297) had PARV4 DNA, representing the first detection of these viruses in New World Primates (NWP). Sex was significantly associated with the presence of HBoV, males having greater risk up to nine times compared with females. Captivity was associated with increased prevalence for PARV4 and when all viruses were analysed together. This study provides compelling molecular evidence of parvoviruses in NWPs and underscores the importance of future research aimed at understanding how these viruses behave in natural environments of the Neotropics and what variables may favour their presence and transmission.

Anointing with commercial insect repellent by free-ranging Cebus capucinus in Manuel Antonio National Park, Quepos, Costa Rica.

Fur rubbing or anointing is a well known behavior in capuchin monkeys (Cebus and Sapajus), and may have medicinal and/or social functions. Observations of anointing in capuchins have recorded the application of substances derived from both plants (orange, onion, garlic, citronella, and lemongrass) and animals (ants and millipedes). The present study reports on anointing behavior in free-ranging white-headed capuchins, Cebus capucinus, which involved a commercial insect repellent. After looting a bottle of repellent from the bag of a visitor to the Manuel Antonio National Park in Costa Rica, an adult male bit open the bottle and rubbed the leaking liquid over its entire body, focusing mainly on its belly. Other members of the group rubbed themselves against the male's body and were eventually able to retrieve the bottle of repellent and anoint themselves. The repellent is composed mainly of extracts of eucalyptus and citronella. The capuchins may have been attracted by the strong citric scent of the citronella, which is known to stimulate fur-rubbing behavior in these monkeys. This is reinforced by the fact that the sequence of events was quite distinct from that associated with an earlier event, in which a juvenile male looted, tasted, and then discarded a stick of lip gloss and a tube of sunblock. Overall, the observations indicate that the citric scent of the repellent was attractive to the capuchins, especially in comparison with other man-made substances. As the animals partially ingested all the substances, there is clearly a need for more effective regulation of the contact between animals and visitors in the park.

Detection of antibodies against flavivirus over time in wild non-human primates from the lowlands of Costa Rica.

Two-hundred-nine free ranging non-human primates from 31 locations throughout Costa Rica were captured and released between 1993 and 2012, and blood samples, sera or plasma were collected, to detect antigens and antibodies, and so assess the distribution of active and passive flavivirus infections over time. A competitive enzyme-linked immunoassay for the detection of antibodies was used to determine the distribution of past flavivirus infections over time, while Reverse Transcriptase Polymerase Chain Reaction (RT-PCR) was used to detect active West Nile Virus (WNV) and Dengue virus (DENV) infections. The first serological evidence of flavivirus in these animals was determined in 1993, at the same time when DENV re-emerged in humans from Costa Rica. An increase in the number of seropositive wild monkeys to flavivirus was determined over time in the country (11.3% seropositivity in 1993-1996, 20.7% in 2001-2008, and finally 52.9% in 2010-2012). Furthermore, the presence of DENV2 was detected in samples from four howler monkeys collected in 2001-2002, whereas DENV2, DENV3, and DENV4 were found in samples from four white-faced monkeys, and WNV in three howler monkeys living in the Pacific coast of Costa Rica during 2010-2012. The habitat where the positive PCR individuals lived were characterized as fragmented forests, having temperatures ranging from 26°C to 28°C, altitudes below 250 meters above sea level, high precipitation during 7 to 9 months (1500-4000 mm), and a marked dry season of 3 to 5 months. All these animals were living near mangroves; however, they did not show clinical signs of illness at the time of sampling. Results obtained show that the number of seropositive wild non-human primates to flavivirus were increasing during time in the country, longitudinal studies are needed to investigate their role as sentinels of these viruses and to determine if flavivirus infections can affect these species.

Canine Distemper Virus in Wild Felids of Costa Rica.

Several highly infectious diseases can be transmitted through feces and cause elevated mortality among carnivore species. One such infectious agent, canine distemper virus (CDV; Paramyxoviridae: Morbillivirus), has been reported to affect wild carnivores, among them several felid species. We screened free-ranging and captive wild carnivores in Costa Rica for CDV. Between 2006 and 2012, we collected 306 fecal samples from 70 jaguars (Panther onca), 71 ocelots ( Leopardus pardalis ), five jaguarundis (Puma yaguaroundi), 105 pumas ( Puma concolor ), five margays ( Leopardus wiedii ), 23 coyotes ( Canis latrans ), and 27 undetermined Leopardus spp. We found CDV in six individuals: one captive jaguarundi (rescued in 2009), three free-ranging ocelots (samples collected in 2012), and two free-ranging pumas (samples collected in 2007). Phylogenetic analyses were performed using sequences of the phosphoprotein (P) gene. We provide evidence of CDV in wild carnivores in Costa Rica and sequence data from a Costa Rican CDV isolate, adding to the very few sequence data available for CDV isolates from wild Central American carnivores.

West Nile Virus in Resident Birds from Yucatan, Mexico.

West Nile virus (WNV) in the Americas is thought to be transported at large spatial scales by migratory birds and locally spread and amplified by resident birds. Local processes, including interspecific interactions and dominance of passerine species recognized as competent reservoirs, may boost infection and maintain endemic cycles. Change in species composition has been recognized as an important driver for infection dynamics. Due to migration and changes in species diversity and composition in wintering grounds, changes in infection prevalence are expected. To these changes, we used PCR to estimate the prevalence of WNV in wild resident birds during the dry and rainy seasons of 2012 in Yucatan, Mexico. Serum samples were obtained from 104 wild birds, belonging to six orders and 35 species. We detected WNV in 14 resident birds, representing 11 species and three orders. Prevalences by order was Passeriformes (27%), Columbiformes (6%), and Piciformes (33%). Resident birds positive to WNV from Yucatan may be indicative of local virus circulation and evidence of past virus transmission activity.

ASPM and the evolution of cerebral cortical size in a community of New World monkeys.

The ASPM (abnormal spindle-like microcephaly associated) gene has been proposed as a major determinant of cerebral cortical size among primates, including humans. Yet the specific functions of ASPM and its connection to human intelligence remain controversial. This debate is limited in part by a taxonomic focus on Old World monkeys and apes. Here we expand the comparative context of ASPM sequence analyses with a study of New World monkeys, a radiation of primates in which enlarged brain size has evolved in parallel in spider monkeys (genus Ateles) and capuchins (genus Cebus). The primate community of Costa Rica is perhaps a model system because it allows for independent pairwise comparisons of smaller- and larger-brained species within two taxonomic families. Accordingly, we analyzed the complete sequence of exon 18 of ASPM in Ateles geoffroyi, Alouatta palliata, Cebus capucinus, and Saimiri oerstedii. As the analysis of multiple species in a genus improves phylogenetic reconstruction, we also analyzed eleven published sequences from other New World monkeys. Our exon-wide, lineage-specific analysis of eleven genera and the ratio of rates of nonsynonymous to synonymous substitutions (d(N)/d(S)) on ASPM revealed no detectable evidence for positive selection in the lineages leading to Ateles or Cebus, as indicated by d(N)/d(S) ratios of <1.0 (0.6502 and 0.4268, respectively). Our results suggest that a multitude of interacting genes have driven the evolution of larger brains among primates, with different genes involved in this process in different encephalized lineages, or at least with evidence for positive selection not readily apparent for the same genes in all lineages. The primate community of Costa Rica may serve as a model system for future studies that aim to elucidate the molecular mechanisms underlying cognitive capacity and cortical size.

Viabilidad poblacional de Alouatta palliata (Primates: Atelidae) y Cebus capucinus (Primates: Cebidae) en el Refugio de Vida Silvestre Privado Nogal, Sarapiquí, Heredia, Costa Rica / Population viability of Alouatta palliata (Primates: Atelidae) and Cebus capucinus (Primates: Cebidae) at Refugio de Vida Silvestre Privado Nogal, Sarapiquí, Heredia, Costa Rica

Population viability of Alouatta palliata (Primates: Atelidae) and Cebus capucinus (Primates: Cebidae) at Refugio de Vida Silvestre Privado Nogal, Sarapiquí, Heredia, Costa Rica. Habitat destruction may cause wildlife population fragmentation and is considered an important factor in small population species extinction. As wildlife populations become smaller, threats to their stability and persistence arise as a result of demographic, environmental and genetic stochastic factors. The aim of this work was to study the effects of population fragmentation on the long term viability of Alouatta palliata and Cebus capucinus populations, at Refugio de Vida Silvestre Privado Nogal, Sarapiquí (RVSPN), Heredia. For this we used the computer software VORTEX to run a population viability analysis (PVA) for both species. The input data of the PVA were taken from the demography structure of the RVSPN, literature sources from the species and from PVA related papers. We evaluated two sets of scenarios: small fragmented populations to reflect the population current state, and one larger and continuous population, to reflect the effect of reforestation actions followed by RVSPN to connect forest fragments. Results suggest that both A. palliata and C. capucinus can survive in isolated forest fragments. However, if different factors as inbreeding depression, catastrophes or habitat loss were incorporated to the scenarios, the small fragmented populations become unstable and the risk of extinction increased for both species. Continuous and larger populations were more robust against the threats incorporated in the scenarios when compared to the current situation of smaller and fragmented populations. The best management option for both species would be to continue reforestation efforts in the area to connect forest fragments, with the result of larger and continuous populations of both species. It is important to continue the observation of both species populations, and to promote a habitat management to reduce the negative effects of stochastic environmental events. Rev. Biol. Trop. 60 (2): 809-832. Epub 2012 June 01.

La destrucción del hábitat conlleva a la fragmentación de poblaciones de especies silvestres y se considera como uno de los principales factores en la extinción de especies A medida que las poblaciones se vuelven más pequeñas, surgen amenazas hacia su estabilidad y persistencia, como resultado de factores estocásticos demográficos, ambientales y genéticos. El objetivo de este trabajo fue estudiar los efectos de la fragmentación de poblaciones en la viabilidad de Alouatta palliata y Cebus capucinus en el Refugio de Vida Silvestre Privado Nogal (RVSPN), Sarapiquí, Heredia. Para esto se uso el programa VORTEX para correr un análisis de viabilidad de poblaciones (PVA) para ambas especies. La información utilizada en el PVA proviene de la estructura demográafica de las poblaciones del RVSPN, literatura sobre la historia natural de las especies y artículos relacionados con PVA. Los resultados sugieren que tanto A. palliata como C. capucinus pueden sobrevivir en fragmentos boscosos aislados. Sin embargo, si se incorporan factores como depresión por endogamia, catástrofes o perdida de hábitat, las pequeñas poblaciones fragmentadas se vuelven inestables y aumenta el riesgo de que desaparezcan. Las poblaciones continuas fueron más robustas ante las amenazas incorporadas, por lo que se recomienda continuar con la reforestación para unir los fragmentos boscosos. Es importante darle seguimiento a las poblaciones de ambas especies y tener un manejo de su hábitat para disminuir los efectos negativos de diferentes eventos estocásticos provocados por el ambiente.

Molecular systematics and phylogeography of Cebus capucinus (Cebidae, Primates) in Colombia and Costa Rica by means of the mitochondrial COII gene.

We propose the first molecular systematic hypothesis for the origin and evolution of Cebus capucinus based on an analysis of 710 base pairs (bp) of the cytochrome c oxidase subunit II (COII) mitochondrial gene in 121 C. capucinus specimens sampled in the wild. The animals came from the borders of Guatemala and Belize, Costa Rica, and eight different departments of Colombia (Antioquia, Chocó, Sucre, Bolivar, Córdoba, Magdalena, Cauca, and Valle del Cauca). Three different and significant haplotype lineages were found in Colombia living sympatrically in the same departments. They all presented high levels of gene diversity but the third Colombian gene pool was determined likely to be the most ancestral lineage. The second Colombian mitochondrial (mt) haplogroup is likely the source of origin of the unique Central America mt haplogroup that was detected. Our molecular population genetics data do not agree with the existence of two well-defined subspecies in Central America (limitaneus and imitator). This Central America mt haplogroup showed significantly less genetic diversity than the Colombian mt haplogroups. All the C. capucinus analyzed showed evidence of historical population expansions. The temporal splits among these four C. capucinus lineages were related to the completion of the Panamanian land bridge as well as to climatic changes during the Quaternary Period.

[Population viability of Alouatta palliata (Primates: Atelidae) and Cebus capucinus (Primates: Cebidae) at Refugio de Vida Silvestre Privado Nogal, Sarapiquí, Heredia, Costa Rica]. / Viabilidad poblacional de Alouatta palliata (Primates: Atelidae) y Cebus capucinus (Primates: Cebidae) en el Refugio de Vida Silvestre Privado Nogal, Sarapiquí, Heredia, Costa Rica.

Habitat destruction may cause wildlife population fragmentation and is considered an important factor in small population species extinction. As wildlife populations become smaller, threats to their stability and persistence arise as a result of demographic, environmental and genetic stochastic factors. The aim of this work was to study the effects of population fragmentation on the long term viability of Alouatta palliata and Cebus capucinus populations, at Refugio de Vida Silvestre Privado Nogal, Sarapiquí (RVSPN), Heredia. For this we used the computer software VORTEX to run a population viability analysis (PVA) for both species. The input data of the PVA were taken from the demography structure of the RVSPN, literature sources from the species and from PVA related papers. We evaluated two sets of scenarios: small fragmented populations to reflect the population current state, and one larger and continuous population, to reflect the effect of reforestation actions followed by RVSPN to connect forest fragments. Results suggest that both A. palliata and C. capucinus can survive in isolated forest fragments. However, if different factors as inbreeding depression, catastrophes or habitat loss were incorporated to the scenarios, the small fragmented populations become unstable and the risk of extinction increased for both species. Continuous and larger populations were more robust against the threats incorporated in the scenarios when compared to the current situation of smaller and fragmented populations. The best management option for both species would be to continue reforestation efforts in the area to connect forest fragments, with the result of larger and continuous populations of both species. It is important to continue the observation of both species populations, and to promote a habitat management to reduce the negative effects of stochastic environmental events.

Prevalence of fur mites (Acari: Atopomelidae) in non-human primates of Costa Rica.

Parasites have been investigated for some New World primates; however, very little is known about ectoparasites and specifically fur mites. In this study, Alouatta palliata, Cebus capucinus, Saimiri oerstedii, and Ateles geoffroyi monkeys from different areas of Costa Rica were searched for fur mites. A total of 276 monkeys were evaluated, and 51 of them were positive for mites of the family Atopomelidae. Listrocarpus alouattae was identified on 22.3% of A. palliata; Listrocarpus capucinus on 12.8% of C. capucinus; and Listrocarpus costaricensis on 36.8% of S. oerstedii; No fur mites were found on A. geoffroyi. Sex was not considered a determinant of mite infestation, but prevalence was significantly higher in the Central Volcanic Mountain Range Conservation Area for L. alouattae (p=0.01) and in the Central Pacific Conservation Area for L. capucinus (p=0.002). These primate fur mites are highly host-specific. Differences in the geographical distribution may be due to monkey behavior and history, as well as to environmental conditions.

Prevalence of fur mites (Acari: Atopomelidae) in non-human primates of Costa Rica

Parasites have been investigated for some New World primates; however, very little is known about ectoparasites and specifically fur mites. In this study, Alouatta palliata, Cebus capucinus, Saimiri oerstedii, and Ateles geoffroyi monkeys from different areas of Costa Rica were searched for fur mites. A total of 276 monkeys were evaluated, and 51 of them were positive for mites of the family Atopomelidae. Listrocarpus alouattae was identified on 22.3% of A. palliata; Listrocarpus capucinus on 12.8% of C. capucinus; and Listrocarpus costaricensis on 36.8% of S. oerstedii; No fur mites were found on A. geoffroyi. Sex was not considered a determinant of mite infestation, but prevalence was significantly higher in the Central Volcanic Mountain Range Conservation Area for L. alouattae (p=0.01) and in the Central Pacific Conservation Area for L. capucinus (p=0.002). These primate fur mites are highly host-specific. Differences in the geographical distribution may be due to monkey behavior and history, as well as to environmental conditions. Rev. Biol. Trop. 57 (1-2): 353-360. Epub 2009 June 30.

Muy poco se conoce sobre los ectoparásitos, específicamente de los ácaros del pelo, de primates del Nuevo Mundo. En este estudio se buscaron ácaros del pelo en monos Alouatta palliata, Cebus capucinus, Saimiri oerstedii y Ateles geoffroyi provenientes de diferentes áreas de Costa Rica. Se evaluaron 276 monos en total y 51 de ellos se encontraron positivos por ácaros de la familia Atopomelidae. Se identificó Listrocarpus alouattae en el 22.3% de los A. palliata, Listrocarpus capucinus en el 12.8% de los C. capucinus y Listrocarpus costaricensis en el 36.8% de los S. oerstedii. El sexo no fue un determinante de la infestación por ácaros, pero la prevalencia de L. alouattae fue significativamente mayor en el Área de Conservación Cordillera Volcánica Central (p=0.01) y la de L. capucinus fue mayor en el Área de Conservación Pacífico Central (p=0.002). Estos ácaros del pelo de primates son altamente específicos en relación con su hospedero. Las diferencias en la distribución geográfica podrían deberse al comportamiento e historia de los monos, así como a las condiciones ambientales.

Parásitos en monos carablanca Cebus capucinus (Primates: Cebidae) de Costa Rica / Parasites of white face monkeys (Cebus capucinus) (Primates: Cebidae) of Costa Rica

Fecal samples of 53 white face monkeys (Cebus capucinus) from some sites of Costa Rica were studied for blood and intestinal parasites. Animals were anesthetized with darts containing Telazol, blood and fecal samples were collected and all the material was studied in the laboratory. For blood parasites, Giemsa stain andKnott concentration was performed. Intestinal parasites were studied by direct examination in 0,85 percent saline solution and a Iodine solution. Haematoxylin stain was used for better protozoa identification. Strongyloides sp, hookworms, acanthocephalid eggs and other nematodes, as well as Tritrichomonas sp (more frequent) and other protozoa were found. The presence of at least one parasites was observed in 33.3 percent to 100 percent of the fecal samples with an average of 73.6 percent. There was not any correlation between sex and infection rate, but the presence of parasite was higher in heavier (older) animals. Microfllarias were the only blood organism detected.The reasons for these high infection rates could be explained for feed diversity, contaminated soil and water contact and sociability of these animals, among other factors.

Se capturaron y anestesiaron un total de 53 primates de la especie Cebus capucinus por medio de dardos con tiletamina de diferentes zonas de Costa Rica. Todos los animales fueron estudiados por la presencia de parásitos sanguíneos e intestinales. En la sangre sólo se encontraron microfilarias (24,5 por ciento) las cuales fueron diagnosticadas usando la concentración de Knott y la tinción de Giemsa. Los parásitos intestinales fueron observados en forma directa y algunos de los protozoos también fueron tejidos con hematoxilina de Heidenhain. Los parásitos encontrados fueron Strongyloides sp, uncinarias, acantocéfalos y otros nemátodos no identificados, en porcentajes que variaron según las zonas de captura. Los índices de infección determinados por la presencia de al menos un parásito fluctuaron entre 33,3 por ciento y el 100 por ciento con una media general del 73,6 por ciento, no existiendo diferencias de infección en cuanto al sexo de los animales. En general se notó un mayor grado de infección en los animales de más peso (más edad) tal y como se ha observado en otros países. Se considera que las infecciones parasitarias son más elevadas en esta especie, posiblemente por tener una alimentación más variada, un mayor contacto con el suelo y aguas contaminadas, así como la gran sociabilidad de estos monos. La presencia de estos parásitos podría ser una de las causas, entre otras para acelerar el riesgo de extinción de los primates en Costa Rica y en América.

Parásitos intestinales en monos congo Alouatta palliata (Primates: Cebidae) de Costa Rica / Intestinal parasites in howler monkeys Alouatta palliata (Primates: Cebidae) of Costa Rica

Fecal samples of 102 howler monkeys (Alouatta palliata) from several sites of Costa Rica were studied for intestinal parasites. The zones studied were: Central Valley (San Ramón, Alajuela), Central Pacific (Chomes and Manuel Antonio National Park, Puntarenas), North Pacific (Palo Verde Park and Playa Potrero, Guanacaste), Chira Island in the Nicoya Gulf and Caribean area (Cahuita, Limón). Animals were anesthetized with dards containing Telazol in order to collect the fecal material; some monkeys defecated spontaneously and others by direct stimulation. Samples were studied in saline solution (0.85%) and a Iodine solution, or stained with Haematoxylin. The material was also cultured in Dobell culture medium to determine the presence of amoeba and flagellates. Strongyloides, Controrchis, Trypanoxyuris genera were found in 3.4% of the samples. In addition 16.7% to 80% of the animals showed protozoa infection with Endolimax, Entamoeba, Trichomonas and Giardia. It is discussed the relationships of parasite infection with environmental conditions, animal population and human presence, specially in the monkey conservation programs point of view

Se estudiaron las heces de 102 monos de la especie Alouatta palliata (monos aulladores o congos) de las siguientes regiones de Costa Rica. Valle Central: San Ramón (Alajuela); Pacífico Central: Isla Chira y Parque Manuel Antonio (Puntarenas); Pacífico Norte: Palo Verde, Playa Potrero, Nicoya (Guanacaste) y Caribe: Cahuita (Limón). Los animales capturados fueron anestesiados con dardos conteniendo Telazol®. La mayoría defecaron espontáneamente o se les estimulaba a defecar. Las muestras se estudiaron en el laboratorio en forma directa en solución salina (0.85%) y una solución de yodo o teñidas con hematoxilina para identificar los parásitos correspondientes. El material fue cultivado en el medio de Dobell para determinar la presencia de amebas y flagelados. Se encontraron helmintos de los géneros Trypanoxyuris, Strongyloides y Controrchis y protozoarios de los géneros Endolimax, Entamoeba, Trichomonas y Giardia. Los porcentajes de infección por protozoarios oscilaron entre 16.7% y 80% y se encontraron helmintos en un 3.4% a un 80% de los animales de acuerdo con la zona estudiada. No se encontraron diferencias importantes de parasitosis relacionadas con el sexo pero si existió mayor infección en los animales más jóvenes. Se establece la relación entre los índices de infección y algunos parámetros tales como las áreas estudiadas, el peso de los animales y el contacto con el ser humano

Audiologic features of Norrie disease.

OBJECTIVES: Norrie disease is an X-linked recessive disorder in which patients are born blind and develop sensory hearing loss in adolescence. The hearing loss associated with Norrie disease has been shown in a genetically altered knockout mouse to involve dysfunction of the stria vascularis; most other structures are preserved until the later stages of the disease. The objective of this study was to characterize the audiologic phenotype of Norrie disease for comparison with the pathophysiologic mechanism. METHODS: The design combined two series of clinical audiologic evaluations, with special attention to speech intelligibility. RESULTS: The audiologic results for 12 affected individuals and 10 carriers show that patients with Norrie disease retain high speech intelligibility scores even when the threshold loss is severe. CONCLUSIONS: The cochlear mechanism-- failure of the stria vascularis-- accounts for some of the higher values in the wide distribution of speech scores in cases with similar pure tone audiograms.

[Intestinal parasites in howler monkeys Alouatta palliata (Primates: Cebidae) of Costa Rica]. / Paráisitos intestinales en monos congo Alouatta palliata (Primates: Cebidae) de Costa Rica.

Fecal samples of 102 howler monkeys (Alouatta palliata) from several sites of Costa Rica were studied for intestinal parasites. The zones studied were: Central Valley (San Ramón, Alajuela), Central Pacific (Chomes and Manuel Antonio National Park. Puntarenas), North Pacific (Palo Verde Park and Playa Potrero, Guanacaste). Chira Island in the Nicoya Gulf and Caribean area (Cahuita. Limón). Animals were anesthetized with dards containing Telazol in order to collect the fecal material; some monkeys defecated spontaneously and others by direct stimulation. Samples were studied in saline solution (0.85%) and a Iodine solution, or stained with Haematoxylin. The material was also cultured in Dobell culture medium to determine the presence of amoeba and flagellates. Strongvloides. Controrchis. Trypanoxyuris genera were found in 3.4% of the samples. In addition 16.7% to 80% of the animals showed protozoa infection with Endolimax, Entamoeba, Trichomonas and Giardia. It is discussed the relationships of parasite infection with environmental conditions, animal population and human presence, specially in the monkey conservation programs point of view.

Familial breast cancer in Costa Rica: an initial approach

Cancer is a worldwide problem because of its high rates of incidence and associated mortality. By 2000, more than 6.2 million people died from this illness worldwide. Among all types of cancer, breast cancer is one of the most studied. Each year, one million new cases are diagnosed around the world. We can classify breast cancer into two main kinds: sporadic cases and those which are a product of inherited genetic alterations. Approximately 5-10% of breast cancer cases are the result of inherited mutations, or alterations in breast cancer susceptibility genes, BRCA1 and BRCA2. Like other countries, Costa Rica possesses high rates of incidence and mortality for breast cancer. According to the "Registro Nacional de Tumores" (National Office of Tumor Records), in 2000 breast cancer had the highest rate of incidence and in 2002 it had the highest rate of mortality in comparison to other types of cancer. For this reason and the generalized lack of knowledge in the field we conducted an epidemiological research on breast cancer patients from Hospital San Juan de Dios, San José, Costa Rica, to find families with a history of breast cancer, and to determine the occurrence of familial cases within the population studied. So far, we have found 23 families, within which we discovered very informative cases that have rendered the identification of a pattern of inheritance. These findings allow us to announce that in Costa Rica there are several cases of inherited breast cancer and that we need more research is needed to improve the prevention, control, and treatment of this disease.