Neighborhood Disadvantage and Autism Spectrum Disorder in a Population With Health Insurance.

Importance: Family socioeconomic status has been associated with autism spectrum disorder (ASD) diagnoses. Less is known regarding the role of neighborhood disadvantage in the United States, particularly when children have similar access to health insurance. Objective: To evaluate the association between neighborhood disadvantage and the diagnosis of ASD and potential effect modification by maternal and child demographic characteristics. Design, Setting, and Participants: This cohort study examined a retrospective birth cohort from Kaiser Permanente Southern California (KPSC), an integrated health care system. Children born in 2001 to 2014 at KPSC were followed up through KPSC membership records. Electronic medical records were used to obtain an ASD diagnosis up to December 31, 2019, or the last follow-up. Data were analyzed from February 2022 to September 2023. Exposure: Socioeconomic disadvantage at the neighborhood level, an index derived from 7 US census tract characteristics using principal component analysis. Main Outcomes and Measures: Clinical ASD diagnosis based on electronic medical records. Associations between neighborhood disadvantage and ASD diagnosis were determined by hazard ratios (HRs) from Cox regression models adjusted for birth year, child sex, maternal age at delivery, parity, severe prepregnancy health conditions, maternal race and ethnicity, and maternal education. Effect modification by maternal race and ethnicity, maternal education, and child sex was assessed. Results: Among 318 372 mothers with singleton deliveries during the study period, 6357 children had ASD diagnoses during follow-up; their median age at diagnosis was 3.53 years (IQR, 2.57-5.34 years). Neighborhood disadvantage was associated with a higher likelihood of ASD diagnosis (HR, 1.07; 95% CI, 1.02-1.11, per IQR = 2.70 increase). Children of mothers from minoritized racial and ethnic groups (African American or Black, Asian or Pacific Islander, Hispanic or Latinx groups) had increased likelihood of ASD diagnosis compared with children of White mothers. There was an interaction between maternal race and ethnicity and neighborhood disadvantage (difference in log-likelihood = 21.88; P < .001 for interaction under χ24); neighborhood disadvantage was only associated with ASD among children of White mothers (HR, 1.17; 95% CI, 1.09-1.26, per IQR = 2.00 increase). Maternal education and child sex did not significantly modify the neighborhood-ASD association. Conclusions and Relevance: In this study, children residing in more disadvantaged neighborhoods at birth had higher likelihood of ASD diagnosis among a population with health insurance. Future research is warranted to investigate the mechanisms behind the neighborhood-related disparities in ASD diagnosis, alongside efforts to provide resources for early intervention and family support in communities with a higher likelihood of ASD.

Effects of ambient fine particulates, nitrogen dioxide, and ozone on maturation of functional brain networks across early adolescence.

BACKGROUND: Air pollution is linked to neurodevelopmental delays, but its association with longitudinal changes in brain network development has yet to be investigated. We aimed to characterize the effect of PM2.5, O3, and NO2 exposure at ages 9-10 years on changes in functional connectivity (FC) over a 2-year follow-up period, with a focus on the salience (SN), frontoparietal (FPN), and default-mode (DMN) brain networks as well as the amygdala and hippocampus given their importance in emotional and cognitive functioning. METHODS: A sample of children (N = 9,497; with 1-2 scans each for a total of 13,824 scans; 45.6% with two brain scans) from the Adolescent Brain Cognitive Development (ABCD) Study® were included. Annual averages of pollutant concentrations were assigned to the child's primary residential address using an ensemble-based exposure modeling approach. Resting-state functional MRI was collected on 3T MRI scanners. First, developmental linear mixed-effect models were performed to characterize typical FC development within our sample. Next, single- and multi-pollutant linear mixed-effect models were constructed to examine the association between exposure and intra-network, inter-network, and subcortical-to-network FC change over time, adjusting for sex, race/ethnicity, income, parental education, handedness, scanner type, and motion. RESULTS: Developmental profiles of FC over the 2-year follow-up included intra-network integration within the DMN and FPN as well as inter-network integration between the SN-FPN; along with intra-network segregation in the SN as well as subcortical-to-network segregation more broadly. Higher PM2.5 exposure resulted in greater inter-network and subcortical-to-network FC over time. In contrast, higher O3 concentrations resulted in greater intra-network, but less subcortical-to-network FC over time. Lastly, higher NO2 exposure led to less inter-network and subcortical-to-network FC over the 2-year follow-up period. CONCLUSION: Taken together, PM2.5, O3, and NO2 exposure in childhood relate to distinct changes in patterns of network maturation over time. This is the first study to show outdoor ambient air pollution during childhood is linked to longitudinal changes in brain network connectivity development.

Ambient fine particulate exposure and subcortical gray matter microarchitecture in 9- and 10-year-old children across the United States.

Neuroimaging studies showing the adverse effects of air pollution on neurodevelopment have largely focused on smaller samples from limited geographical locations and have implemented univariant approaches to assess exposure and brain macrostructure. Herein, we implement restriction spectrum imaging and a multivariate approach to examine how one year of annual exposure to daily fine particulate matter (PM2.5), daily nitrogen dioxide (NO2), and 8-h maximum ozone (O3) at ages 9-10 years relates to subcortical gray matter microarchitecture in a geographically diverse subsample of children from the Adolescent Brain Cognitive Development (ABCD) Study℠. Adjusting for confounders, we identified a latent variable representing 66% of the variance between one year of air pollution and subcortical gray matter microarchitecture. PM2.5 was related to greater isotropic intracellular diffusion in the thalamus, brainstem, and accumbens, which related to cognition and internalizing symptoms. These findings may be indicative of previously identified air pollution-related risk for neuroinflammation and early neurodegenerative pathologies.

Location matters: Regional variation in association of community burden of COVID-19 with caregiver and youth worry.

Our study characterized associations between three indicators of COVID-19's community-level impact in 20 geographically diverse metropolitan regions and how worried youth and their caregivers in the Adolescent Brain Cognitive Development℠ Study have been about COVID-19. County-level COVID-19 case/death rates and monthly unemployment rates were geocoded to participants' addresses. Caregivers' (vs. youths') COVID-19-related worry was more strongly associated with COVID-19's community impact, independent of sociodemographics and pre-pandemic anxiety levels, with these associations varying by location. Public-health agencies and healthcare providers should avoid adopting uniform "one-size-fits-all" approaches to addressing COVID-19-related emotional distress and must consider specific communities' needs, challenges, and strengths.

Cumulative Neighborhood Risk and Subsequent Internalizing Behavior among Asian American Adolescents.

Neighborhood disadvantage is a developmental context that may contribute to Asian American adolescent internalizing problems, yet there is a dearth of longitudinal studies as well as examination of cultural protective factors. Co-ethnic density, or the proportion of individuals of the same racial/ethnic background in the neighborhood that is often cited as a protective factor for racial/ethnic minority groups, has not been adequately examined in Asian American youth. This study examined the longitudinal association between cumulative neighborhood risk and internalizing behavior, and the moderating role of sex and co-ethnic density using an Asian American subsample (N = 177; 45.2% female; ages 10-12, 14-15; Cambodian, Chinese, Filipino, Hmong, Japanese, Korean, Laotian, Samoan, Vietnamese, and other ethnic backgrounds) of a longitudinal panel study over a span of 6 years. Cumulative neighborhood risk during early adolescence (ages 10-14) was significantly associated with internalizing behavior at mid-adolescence (age 15) controlling for prior levels of internalizing behavior. There was no evidence of moderation by co-ethnic density or sex, indicating that reducing neighborhood disadvantage may be a promising preventive measure to address mental health problems for both sexes of Asian American adolescents.

Resilience to COVID-19: Socioeconomic Disadvantage Associated With Positive Caregiver-Youth Communication and Youth Preventative Actions.

Socioeconomic disadvantage is associated with larger COVID-19 disease burdens and pandemic-related economic impacts. We utilized the longitudinal Adolescent Brain Cognitive Development Study to understand how family- and neighborhood-level socioeconomic disadvantage relate to disease burden, family communication, and preventative responses to the pandemic in over 6,000 youth-caregiver dyads. Data were collected at three timepoints (May-August 2020). Here, we show that both family- and neighborhood-level disadvantage were associated with caregivers' reports of greater family COVID-19 disease burden, less perceived exposure risk, more frequent caregiver-youth conversations about COVID-19 risk/prevention and reassurance, and greater youth preventative behaviors. Families with more socioeconomic disadvantage may be adaptively incorporating more protective strategies to reduce emotional distress and likelihood of COVID-19 infection. The results highlight the importance of caregiver-youth communication and disease-preventative practices for buffering the economic and disease burdens of COVID-19, along with policies and programs that reduce these burdens for families with socioeconomic disadvantage.

Neighborhood poverty, intergenerational mobility, and early developmental health in a population birth cohort.

Living in a neighborhood with high levels of intergenerational mobility is associated with better childhood cognition and behavior as well as adult health. Nevertheless, it is unclear if such differences originate earlier, and thus if neighborhood intergenerational mobility is associated with health differences at birth. To address this question, we examined whether neighborhood intergenerational mobility, independent of neighborhood poverty, was associated with low birth weight (LBW) in a population-based cohort of singleton children born in California in 2017 (n = 426,873). Although increased neighborhood mobility was associated with a decreased likelihood of LBW, it was no longer associated with LBW (OR = 0.98, CI = 0.96, 1.00) after adjusting for neighborhood poverty. Meanwhile, neighborhood poverty was associated with LBW (OR = 1.04, CI = 1.02, 1.05) after accounting for mobility, with the odds of LBW 9.4% higher among children born where neighborhood poverty was in the 90th percentile compared with children born where neighborhood poverty was in the 10th percentile. Findings indicate that neighborhood poverty, but not intergenerational mobility, is a robust and independent correlate of increased LBW births, and thus early developmental health. These findings also suggest that the role of neighborhood intergenerational mobility in child and adult health outcomes may emerge later in development, independent of LBW, or that the role of neighborhood intergenerational mobility in LBW may be indirectly mediated through exposure to neighborhood poverty.

School Climate, Cortical Structure, and Socioemotional Functioning: Associations across Family Income Levels.

School climates are important for children's socioemotional development and may also serve as protective factors in the context of adversity. Nevertheless, little is known about the potential neural mechanisms of such associations, as there has been limited research concerning the relation between school climate and brain structure, particularly for brain regions relevant for mental health and socioemotional functioning. Moreover, it remains unclear whether the role of school climate differs depending on children's socioeconomic status. We addressed these questions in baseline data for 9- to 10-year-olds from the Adolescent Brain and Cognitive Development study (analytic sample for socioemotional outcomes, n = 8887), conducted at 21 sites across the United States. Cortical thickness, cortical surface area, and subcortical volume were derived from T1-weighted brain magnetic resonance imaging. School climate was measured by youth report, and socioemotional functioning was measured by both youth and parent report. A positive school climate and higher family income were associated with lower internalizing and externalizing symptoms, with no evidence of moderation. There were no associations between school climate and cortical thickness or subcortical volume, although family income was positively associated with hippocampal volume. For cortical surface area, however, there was both a positive association with family income and moderation: There was an interaction between school climate and income for total cortical surface area and locally in the lateral orbitofrontal cortex. In all cases, there was an unexpected negative association between school climate and cortical surface area in the lower-income group. Consequently, although the school climate appears to be related to better socioemotional function for all youth, findings suggest that the association between a positive school environment and brain structure only emerges in the context of socioeconomic stress and adversity. Longitudinal data are needed to understand the role of these neural differences in socioemotional functioning over time.

Maternal Intimate Partner Violence Exposure and Autonomic Reactivity: Associations With Positive Parenting.

Intimate partner violence (IPV) can negatively impact parenting, posing a threat both to the wellbeing of mothers and their young children. Parenting may also be influenced by emotion regulation (ER), which can support parents' ability to navigate relational challenges or buffer against the influence of adverse experiences on parenting. Changes in maternal respiratory sinus arrhythmia (RSA) during parent-child interactions have been conceptualized as a psychophysiological index of ER. Competing theoretical models posit that RSA response may mediate or moderate the relation between IPV and parenting or may be independently associated with parenting, however, there is little prior evidence concerning these hypothesized associations. This study examined these associations in a sample of 125 low-income maltreating and comparison mothers and their 3- to 5-year-old children. Dyads completed a moderately challenging laboratory task, and positive parenting and maternal RSA were measured during the task. Maternal verbal IPV exposure, but not physical IPV, was associated with less positive parenting, while greater maternal RSA activation over the task was associated with more positive parenting. Maternal RSA activation did not mediate or moderate the relationship between IPV exposure and parenting, and this association did not differ by whether or not the mother had perpetrated child maltreatment. Consequently, verbal IPV exposure and greater RSA activation independently predicted positive parenting. Results suggest that interventions for IPV-exposed mothers of young children may benefit from ensuring psychological safety and improving maternal ER to promote positive parenting for at-risk children.

Ambient air pollution associated with lower academic achievement among US children: A nationwide panel study of school districts.

BACKGROUND: Ambient air pollution is an important environmental exposure and has been linked with impaired cognitive function. Few studies have investigated its impact on children's academic performance on a nationwide level. We hypothesize that higher ambient air pollution concentrations will be associated with lower average academic test scores. METHODS: We investigated three prevalent ambient air pollutants: PM2.5, NO2 and ozone, and their associations with the average academic test scores, at the Geographic School District (GSD) level, of the third to eighth grade students in the United States from 2010 to 2016. We applied multivariate linear regression and controlled for urbanicity, socioeconomic status, student racial/ethnic compositions, and individual intercepts for each district-grade level and each year. RESULTS: We found that an interquartile range increase in PM2.5 concentrations was associated with a 0.007 (95% confidence interval: 0.005, 0.009) SD lower average math test scores, and a 0.004 (95% confidence interval: 0.002, 0.005) SD lower average English language/arts test scores. Similar associations were observed for NO2 and ozone on math, and for NO2 on English language/arts. The magnitudes of these associations are equivalent to the effects of short-term reductions of thousands of dollars in district median household income. The reductions in test scores were larger for GSDs with higher socioeconomic status, though most associations remained negative at all socioeconomic levels. CONCLUSIONS: Our results show that ambient air pollution within a GSD is associated with lower academic performance among children. Further improving air quality may benefit children's overall academic achievement and socioeconomic attainment across the lifespan.

Association of Local Variation in Neighborhood Disadvantage in Metropolitan Areas With Youth Neurocognition and Brain Structure.

Importance: Neighborhood disadvantage is an important social determinant of health in childhood and adolescence. Less is known about the association of neighborhood disadvantage with youth neurocognition and brain structure, and particularly whether associations are similar across metropolitan areas and are attributed to local differences in disadvantage. Objective: To test whether neighborhood disadvantage is associated with youth neurocognitive performance and with global and regional measures of brain structure after adjusting for family socioeconomic status and perceptions of neighborhood characteristics, and to assess whether these associations (1) are pervasive or limited, (2) vary across metropolitan areas, and (3) are attributed to local variation in disadvantage within metropolitan areas. Design, Setting, and Participants: This cross-sectional study analyzed baseline data from the Adolescent Brain and Cognitive Development (ABCD) Study, a cohort study conducted at 21 sites across the US. Participants were children aged 9.00 to 10.99 years at enrollment. They and their parent or caregiver completed a baseline visit between October 1, 2016, and October 31, 2018. Exposures: Neighborhood disadvantage factor based on US census tract characteristics. Main Outcomes and Measures: Neurocognition was measured with the NIH Toolbox Cognition Battery, and T1-weighted magnetic resonance imaging was used to assess whole-brain and regional measures of structure. Linear mixed-effects models examined the association between neighborhood disadvantage and outcomes after adjusting for sociodemographic factors. Results: Of the 11 875 children in the ABCD Study cohort, 8598 children (72.4%) were included in this analysis. The study sample had a mean (SD) age of 118.8 (7.4) months and included 4526 boys (52.6%). Every 1-unit increase in the neighborhood disadvantage factor was associated with lower performance on 6 of 7 subtests, such as Flanker Inhibitory Control and Attention (unstandardized Β = -0.5; 95% CI, -0.7 to -0.2; false discovery rate (FDR)-corrected P = .001) and List Sorting Working Memory (unstandardized Β = -0.7; 95% CI, -1.0 to -0.3; FDR-corrected P < .001), as well as on all composite measures of neurocognition, such as the Total Cognition Composite (unstandardized Β = -0.7; 95% CI, -0.9 to -0.5; FDR-corrected P < .001). Each 1-unit increase in neighborhood disadvantage was associated with lower whole-brain cortical surface area (unstandardized Β = -692.6 mm2; 95% CI, -1154.9 to -230.4 mm2; FDR-corrected P = .007) and subcortical volume (unstandardized Β = -113.9 mm3; 95% CI, -198.5 to -29.4 mm3; FDR-corrected P = .03) as well as with regional surface area differences, primarily in the frontal, parietal, and temporal lobes. Associations largely remained after adjusting for perceptions of neighborhood safety and were both consistent across metropolitan areas and primarily explained by local variation in each area. Conclusions and Relevance: This study found that, in the US, local variation in neighborhood disadvantage was associated with lower neurocognitive performance and smaller cortical surface area and subcortical volume in young people. The findings demonstrate that neighborhood disadvantage is an environmental risk factor for neurodevelopmental and population health and enhancing the neighborhood context is a promising approach to improving the health and development of children and adolescents.

Early childhood poverty and adult executive functioning: Distinct, mediating pathways for different domains of executive functioning.

Executive functioning in adulthood is associated with early-in-life disadvantage. Furthermore, distinct and independent underlying processes account for differences in specific domains of adult executive functioning. The duration of poverty from birth to age 9 is associated with reduced adult inhibitory control assessed by the Flanker task (n = 233, M = 23.52 years). This effect is largely explained by lower levels of maternal responsiveness in adolescence. Early poverty also related to worse working memory in adulthood, and this effect is partially explained by elevated allostatic load during adolescence, an index of chronic physiological stress.

Fine particulate matter exposure during childhood relates to hemispheric-specific differences in brain structure.

BACKGROUND: Emerging findings have increased concern that exposure to fine particulate matter air pollution (aerodynamic diameter ≤ 2.5 µm; PM2.5) may be neurotoxic, even at lower levels of exposure. Yet, additional studies are needed to determine if exposure to current PM2.5 levels may be linked to hemispheric and regional patterns of brain development in children across the United States. OBJECTIVES: We examined the cross-sectional associations between geocoded measures of concurrent annual average outdoor PM2.5 exposure, regional- and hemisphere-specific differences in brain morphometry and cognition in 10,343 9- and 10- year-old children. METHODS: High-resolution structural T1-weighted brain magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) and NIH Toolbox measures of cognition were collected from children at ages 9-10 years. FreeSurfer was used to quantify cortical surface area, cortical thickness, as well as subcortical and cerebellum volumes in each hemisphere. PM2.5 concentrations were estimated using an ensemble-based model approach and assigned to each child's primary residential address collected at the study visit. We used mixed-effects models to examine regional- and hemispheric- effects of PM2.5 exposure on brain estimates and cognition after considering nesting of participants by familial relationships and study site, adjustment for socio-demographic factors and multiple comparisons. RESULTS: Annual residential PM2.5 exposure (7.63 ± 1.57 µg/m3) was associated with hemispheric specific differences in gray matter across cortical regions of the frontal, parietal, temporal and occipital lobes as well as subcortical and cerebellum brain regions. There were hemispheric-specific associations between PM2.5 exposures and cortical surface area in 9/31 regions; cortical thickness in 22/27 regions; and volumes of the thalamus, pallidum, and nucleus accumbens. We found neither significant associations between PM2.5 and task performance on individual measures of neurocognition nor evidence that sex moderated the observed associations. DISCUSSION: Even at relatively low-levels, current PM2.5 exposure across the U.S. may be an important environmental factor influencing patterns of structural brain development in childhood. Prospective follow-up of this cohort will help determine how current levels of PM2.5 exposure may affect brain development and subsequent risk for cognitive and emotional problems across adolescence.

Systemic inflammation is associated with differential neural reactivity and connectivity to affective images.

Systemic inflammation is increasingly appreciated as a predictor of health and well-being. Further, inflammation has been shown to influence and be influenced by affective experiences. Although prior work has substantiated associations between inflammatory and affective processes, fewer studies have investigated the neurobiological correlates that underlie links between systemic, low-grade inflammation and affective reactivity. Thus, the current study examined whether markers of systemic inflammation (i.e. interleukin-6, C-reactive protein) are associated with differential patterns of neural activation and connectivity in corticolimbic regions in response to affective images. We investigated this question in a sample of 66 adults (44 women, M age = 54.98 years, range = 35-76) from the Midlife in the United States study. Higher levels of inflammation were associated with lower activity in limbic regions (i.e. amygdala, hippocampus, anterior insula, temporal pole) when viewing positive (vs neutral) images. Higher levels of inflammation were also associated with greater connectivity between the hippocampus and the medial prefrontal cortex in response to positive images. Inflammatory markers were not associated with significant differences in activation or connectivity to negative images. These findings highlight the utility of health neuroscience approaches in demonstrating that physiological processes such as inflammation are related to how our brains respond to affective information.

Parental Exposure to Childhood Maltreatment and Offspring's Mental Health: Investigating Pathways Through Parental Adversity and Offspring Exposure to Maltreatment.

Parental exposure to child maltreatment (CM) is an important predictor of their offspring's CM experiences and mental health. However, less attention has been paid to examine possible mechanisms of transmission, which is critical to inform prevention and intervention efforts. The current study tested (1) whether the association between parental CM exposure and offspring CM exposure was mediated by (a) parental exposure to violence in adulthood or (b) other emotional stressors/adversities in adulthood and (2) the indirect effects from parental CM exposure to offspring mental health outcomes through parental adversity and offspring CM exposure. Data came from a longitudinal study of maltreatment on adolescent development, and analyses focused on adolescents living with a biological parent (N = 185, 51% female). Biological parents (95% mothers) reported on their history of CM and exposure to other adversities across their lifetime. Adolescents self-reported lifetime CM experiences and current depression, anxiety, posttraumatic stress disorder, and externalizing behaviors in late adolescence (Mage = 18.49). Results showed a significant indirect effect of parent CM exposure on offspring's CM exposure and mental health through parental emotional stressors/adversities, but not physical violence. These findings highlight different types of stressors that may impact the risk for intergenerational transmission of CM and subsequent offspring mental health.

Social Causation, Social Selection, or Common Determinants? Examining Competing Explanations for the Link Between Young Adult Unemployment and Nicotine Dependence.

INTRODUCTION: Unemployment has been related to smoking, yet the causal nature of the association is subject to continued debate. Social causation argues that unemployment triggers changes in smoking, whereas the social selection hypothesis proposes that pre-existing smoking behavior lowers the probability of maintaining employment. The present study tested these competing explanations while accounting for another alternative explanation-common liability. METHODS: Data were from the Christchurch Health and Development Study, a longitudinal cohort followed from birth to age 35. Odds were generated for having nicotine dependence in models for social causation and being unemployed in models for social selection. These models were extended to include possible common liability factors during childhood (eg, novelty seeking) and young adulthood (eg, major depression). RESULTS: In the model testing social causation, coefficients representing the impacts of unemployment on nicotine dependence remained statistically significant and robust (odds ratio [OR] = 1.55; 95% confidence interval [CI] = 1.20, 2.00), even after accounting for common determinant measures. In contrast, a reverse social selection model revealed that coefficients representing the impacts of nicotine dependence on unemployment substantially attenuated and became statistically nonsignificant as childhood factors were added (OR = 1.14; 95% CI = 0.90, 1.45). CONCLUSIONS: Unemployment may serve as inroads to nicotine addiction among young adults, not the other way, even in the context of nicotine dependence, a more impaired form of smoking that may arguably hold higher potential to generate social selection processes. This social causation process cannot be completely attributable to common determinant factors. IMPLICATIONS: It is critical to clarify whether unemployment triggers changes in smoking behaviors (ie, social causation) or vice versa (ie, social selection)-the answers to the question will lead to public health strategies with very different intervention targets to break the linkage. The current study findings favor social causation over social selection, regardless of gender, and support a needed shift in service profiles for unemployed young adults-from a narrow focus on job skills training to a more holistic approach that incorporates knowledge from addiction science in which unemployed young adults can find needed services to cope with job loss.

Neighborhood environments influence emotion and physiological reactivity.

Living in a disadvantaged neighborhood is associated with worse health and early mortality. Although many mechanisms may partially account for this effect, disadvantaged neighborhood environments are hypothesized to elicit stress and emotional responses that accumulate over time and influence physical and mental health. However, evidence for neighborhood effects on stress and emotion is limited due to methodological challenges. In order to address this question, we developed a virtual reality experimental model of neighborhood disadvantage and affluence and examined the effects of simulated neighborhoods on immediate stress and emotion. Exposure to neighborhood disadvantage resulted in greater negative emotion, less positive emotion, and more compassion, compared to exposure to affluence. However, the effect of virtual neighborhood environments on blood pressure and electrodermal reactivity depended on parental education. Participants from families with lower education exhibited greater reactivity to the disadvantaged neighborhood, while those from families with higher education exhibited greater reactivity to the affluent neighborhood. These results demonstrate that simulated neighborhood environments can elicit immediate stress reactivity and emotion, but the nature of physiological effects depends on sensitization to prior experience.

Young Adult Unemployment and Later Depression and Anxiety: Does Childhood Neighborhood Matter?

Young adulthood represents a developmental period with disproportionately heightened risk of losing a job. Young adult unemployment has been linked to increased mental health problems, at least in the short term. However, their possible long-term impacts, often referred as "scarring effects," have been understudied, possibly underestimating the magnitude of mental health burden that young adult unemployment generates. This longitudinal study examined whether duration of unemployment during young adulthood is associated with later mental health disorders, after accounting for mental and behavioral health problems in childhood. Furthermore, the current study investigated whether childhood neighborhood characteristics affect this association and if so, in what specific functional ways. Data were drawn from a longitudinal study of developmental outcomes in a community sample in Seattle. Data collection began in 1985 when study participants were elementary students and involved yearly assessments in childhood and adolescence (ages 10-16) and then biennial or triennial assessments (ages 18-39; N = 677 at age 39; 47% European American, 26% African American, 22% Asian American, and 5% Native American; 49% female). The current study findings suggest that duration of unemployment across young adulthood increased mental health problems at age 39, regardless of gender. Childhood neighborhood characteristics, particularly their positive aspect, exerted independent impacts on adult mental health problems beyond unemployment experiences across young adulthood. The current findings indicate a needed shift in service profiles for unemployed young adults-a comprehensive approach that not only facilitates reemployment but also addresses mental health needs to help them to cope with job loss. Further, the present study findings suggest that childhood neighborhoods, particularly positive features such as positive neighborhood involvement, may represent concrete and malleable prevention targets that can curb mental health problems early in life.

Enduring Association Between Parenting and Cortisol: A Meta-analysis.

Warm caregiving is associated with concurrent hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenocortical (HPA) axis function, although the persistence of this association over time is less established. Using longitudinal and intervention studies, this meta-analysis examined the enduring association of parental warmth (measured when children were ages < 1 through 15 years) with basal cortisol, reactivity and recovery (measured when children were ages < 1 through 25 years; k = 38; N = 6,608). These studies demonstrate no overall associations between parenting and children's HPA axis; instead there are small associations that vary based on moderators such as socioeconomic status, developmental stage, study design and stressor type, though many moderators are confounded. This first wave of studies indicates that the enduring association between parenting and cortisol is small and only understood in the context of other factors, and directly informs four sets of methodological and theoretical recommendations to strengthen this literature.

Socioeconomic Position and Age-Related Disparities in Regional Cerebral Blood Flow Within the Prefrontal Cortex.

OBJECTIVE: Socioeconomic position (SEP) is associated with cerebrovascular health and brain function, particularly in prefrontal cortex and medial temporal lobe regions that exhibit plasticity across the life course. However, it is unknown whether SEP associates with resting cerebral blood flow (CBF), an indicator of baseline brain function, in these regions in midlife, and whether the association is (a) period specific, with independent associations for childhood and adulthood SEP, or driven by life course SEP, and (b) explained by a persistent disparity, widening disparity, or the leveling of disparities with age. METHODS: To address these questions, we analyzed cerebral perfusion derived by magnetic resonance imaging in a cross-sectional study of healthy adults (N = 443) who reported on childhood and adult SEP. Main effects were examined as an index of persistent disparity and age by SEP interactions as reflecting widening or leveling disparities. RESULTS: Stable high SEP across the lifespan was associated with higher global CBF and regional CBF (rCBF) in inferior frontal gyrus. However, childhood SEP was associated with rCBF in middle frontal gyrus, as moderated by age (ß = 0.04, p = .035): rCBF was inversely associated with age only for those whose parents had a high school education or below. No associations were observed for the hippocampus or amygdala. CONCLUSIONS: Life course SEP associations with rCBF in prefrontal cortex are suggestive of persistent disparities, whereas the age by childhood SEP interaction suggests that childhood disadvantage relates to a widening disparity, independent of global differences. These differential patterns in midlife may relate to disparities in later-life cerebrovascular and neurocognitive outcomes.