The Amount of Food Ingested and Its Impact on the Level of Uric Acid in the Blood Plasma of Snakes.

In mammals, lipemic blood from sampling too soon after an animal feeds can have substantial effects on biochemical values. Plasma biochemical values in reptiles may be affected by species, age, season, and nutritional state. However, fasting status is not routinely considered when sampling reptile blood. Assessing uric acid levels in snakes is an important part of the diagnosis of the renal disease. However, the use of this biochemical indicator is undervalued without knowledge of natural uric acid fluctuations and the lack of differentiation from pathological changes. This study aimed to look at the relationship between snake feeding and uric acid concentrations. The investigation aims to better understand the feed-induced changes that occur and render the analysis of this biochemical parameter a more potent diagnostic tool. The study used ten snakes belonging to seven species, and basal uric acid values were evaluated by blood biochemical analysis before feeding. The snakes were fed in two rounds, with successive blood sampling and monitoring of uric acid changes carried out for each. The snakes were fed approximately 50% more with the second round of feeding to investigate the relationship between food supply and uric acid level. The findings show feeding led to substantial elevations in uric acid values, whereby postprandial concentrations were significantly elevated for up to 8 days after feeding. The findings show the significant changes in uric acid levels that occur after feeding and the similarities between postprandial rises in uric acid and those reported in snakes with renal disease. To minimize misdiagnosis and differentiate transient postprandial hyperuricemia from pathological increases, it is recommended that sufficient anamnestic data on time since the last feeding be collected, as well as repeated samples following weeks of fasting. This knowledge is crucial because the amount of feed in terms of intensity and volume has a significant effect on uric acid levels in the blood of snakes.

Oxyurid nematodes of pet rodents in Slovakia - a neglected zoonotic threat / Nematódeos oxiurídeos de roedores de estimação na Eslováquia - uma ameaça zoonótica negligenciada

Abstract The role of rodents as reservoirs of helminths of public health importance is not well known. The zoonotic potential of Syphacia spp. has been confirmed; therefore, the study aimed to estimate the occurrence of oxyurid nematodes in small rodents from pet shops and breeding clubs in Slovakia. Fecal samples of 586 pet rodents kept in 133 cages were collected between 2016 and 2018 and examined by Faust´s flotation method. Four species of oxyurid nematodes, Syphacia muris, S. obvelata, Aspiculuris tetraptera and Paraspidodera uncinata were detected. A. tetraptera was found in the faecal samples of all rodent species included in this survey. The number of positive boxes varied from 5.4% in hamsters to 70.0% with mice. The prevalence of Syphacia muris was highest in Mongolian gerbils where up to 75.0% boxes were positive; S. obvelata was found in 26.7% of boxes with mice, 25.0% of boxes with Mongolian gerbils and 3.2% of boxes with rats. The high prevalence of Syphacia spp. in all animal species points out the infection risk for humans. Animals offered for sale are often in close contact with human beings; therefore they should be regularly tested for parasites and then effectively dewormed.

Resumo O papel dos roedores como reservatórios de helmintos de importância para a saúde pública não é bem conhecido. O potencial zoonótico de Syphacia spp. foi confirmado; portanto, o estudo teve como objetivo estimar a ocorrência de nematóides oxiurídeos em pequenos roedores de pet shops e clubes de reprodução na Eslováquia. Amostras fecais de 586 roedores mantidos em 133 gaiolas foram coletadas entre 2016 e 2018 e examinadas pelo método de flotação de Faust. Foram detectadas quatro espécies de nematódeos oxiurídeos, Syphacia muris, S. obvelata, Aspiculuris tetraptera e Paraspidodera uncinata, A. tetraptera foi encontrado nas amostras fecais de todas as espécies de roedores incluídas nesta pesquisa. O número de gaiolas positivas variou de 5,4% em hamsters a 70,0% em camundongos. A prevalência de Syphacia muris foi maior nos gerbilos da Mongólia, onde até 75,0% das gaiolas foram positivas; S. obvelata foi encontrada em 26,7% das gaiolas com camundongos, 25,0% das gaiolas com gerbilos da Mongólia e 3,2% das gaiolas com ratos. A alta prevalência de Syphacia spp. em todas as espécies animais aponta o risco de infecção para os seres humanos. Animais oferecidos para venda estão frequentemente em contato próximo com seres humanos; portanto, eles devem ser regularmente testados quanto a parasitas e, então, efetivamente desparasitados.

Oxyurid nematodes of pet rodents in Slovakia - a neglected zoonotic threat.

The role of rodents as reservoirs of helminths of public health importance is not well known. The zoonotic potential of Syphacia spp. has been confirmed; therefore, the study aimed to estimate the occurrence of oxyurid nematodes in small rodents from pet shops and breeding clubs in Slovakia. Fecal samples of 586 pet rodents kept in 133 cages were collected between 2016 and 2018 and examined by Faust´s flotation method. Four species of oxyurid nematodes, Syphacia muris, S. obvelata, Aspiculuris tetraptera and Paraspidodera uncinata were detected. A. tetraptera was found in the faecal samples of all rodent species included in this survey. The number of positive boxes varied from 5.4% in hamsters to 70.0% with mice. The prevalence of Syphacia muris was highest in Mongolian gerbils where up to 75.0% boxes were positive; S. obvelata was found in 26.7% of boxes with mice, 25.0% of boxes with Mongolian gerbils and 3.2% of boxes with rats. The high prevalence of Syphacia spp. in all animal species points out the infection risk for humans. Animals offered for sale are often in close contact with human beings; therefore they should be regularly tested for parasites and then effectively dewormed.

Impact of way of life and environment on the prevalence of Chlamydia felis in cats as potentional sources of infection for humans.

INTRODUCTION AND OBJECTIVES: Chlamydia (C.) felis can cause infection which may be associated with conjunctivitis and/or respiratory tract disease, particularly in kittens, but could also be the cause of the disease in adult cats. Infection is more common in multi-cat environments. The zoonotic potential of C. felis appears low, but exposure to this microorganism is possible by handling the affected cats, by contact with their aerosol, and also via fomites. MATERIAL AND METHODS: In the study, 140 cats of various breeds from Kosice region in Slovakia were studied. Conjunctival samples were obtained from 71 clinically healthy cats (50.7%) and 69 cats with clinical signs of conjunctivitis and upper respiratory tract impairment (49.3%). Cats were divided into 4 groups according to breed and type of environment in which they lived. In the 1st group were cats kept inside only (n=33), in the 2nd group, free-roaming cats (n=50), the 3rd group comprised stray cats, taken from the streets (n=28), and the 4th group included cats kept in shelters or deposit devices (n=29). Molecular method PCR and DNA sequencing was used as the diagnostic method. RESULTS: Overall positivity was 17.1%. Of the 24 positive cats, the highest positivity was detected in the population of stray cats (35.7%) and shelter cats (31%). In the group of free-roaming cats, 10% had positivity. No positive animals were detected in the group of cats kept inside only. It was also found that the risk of C. felis in cats with clinical signs of disease was more than 7-fold higher than in cats without clinical signs of conjunctivitis and respiratory tract. CONCLUSIONS: The obtained results show that cats, especially stray and shelter cats, can be important sources of feline chlamydiosis, and due to their close contact with people they can present a risk for transmission.

Screening of opportunistic Encephalitozoon intestinalis and Enterocytozoon bieneusi in immunocompromised patients in Slovakia.

OBJECTIVE: In recent years new infectious diseases, i.e. emerging or re-emerging diseases, have been coming to the forefront. Currently, microsporidia, considered to be a major cause of emerging and opportunistic infections particularly in immunocompromised individuals, are also included in this group. Therefore, the aim of our study was to map the prevalence of Encephalitozoon intestinalis and Enterocytozoon bieneusi infection in a group of patients and to compare it with the occurrence of specific antigens in immunocompetent people. METHODS: Detection of spores of both pathogens in faecal samples was performed by an immunofluorescence test using species-specific monoclonal antibodies. RESULTS: Positivity to E. intestinalis in 91 examined immunosuppressed patients reached 33% (30/91), while only 4.3% (3/70) of the control group samples were found to be positive (relative risk 7.7, p < 0.001). In case of E. bieneusi 14.3% (13/91) of immunocompromised patients were positive, as were 5.7% (4/70) of people from the control group (relative risk 2.5, p = 0.095). CONCLUSION: In case of development of any opportunistic infection, the infection is detected and removed in most cases at an early stage. The incidence of clinically manifested microsporidiosis in patients with immunodeficiency is rare as they are under constant medical supervision. However, we must not forget about opportunistic infections, and in case of any non-specific symptoms it is necessary to exclude or confirm the diagnosis for immediate treatment.

A frequent roundworm Baylisascaris transfuga in overpopulated brown bears (Ursus arctos) in Slovakia: a problem worthy of attention.

The genus Baylisascaris (order Ascaridida) includes numerous relatively host-specific nematodes, which are common in intestines of wild mammals. Some of them may have impact on veterinary and public health, as their larvae have the potential to cause visceral, ocular, and/or neural larva migrans in a wide range of mammals, birds, and humans. Baylisascaris transfuga is a parasite occurring in a range of bear species throughout the world. We present the current data on B. transfuga occurrence in brown bears from a relatively restricted territory of the Polana Protected Landscape Area in Central Slovakia, obtained by traditional methods (faecal examination, morphology). Species affiliation was confirmed by employing molecular markers generating nuclear 28S and mitochondrial cox1 sequences in adult worms. Based on 17 examined samples (15 excrements and two intestines of young bear females), the occurrence of B. transfuga in the surveyed area was assessed as 52.9%. Both bear females were infected with adult and juvenile worms. Due to the high density of bears in the locality, the high infection rate with ascarids, and the huge number of eggs produced by the parasites, it is apparent that the respective environment, including the inhabited areas, might be markedly contaminated by Baylisascaris eggs. The ability of B. transfuga to serve as a zoonotic agent has not been unambiguously proved; however, this attribute should be considered and subjected to further research.

Detection of CHLAMYDIA PSITTACI in feral pigeons (COLUMBA LIVIA DOMESTICA) in Slovakia and their characterisation.

INTRODUCTION AND OBJECTIVES: Chlamydia psittaci, an obligate intracellular bacterium, which is the etiologic agent of avian chlamydiosis in birds and ornithosis/psittacosis in humans, has been reported to be one of the most common pathogens found in feral pigeons worldwide, and thus constitutes a zoonotic risk. The aim of the study was to investigate pigeons in Slovakia living in areas in close proximity to humans for the presence of C. psittaci, using pharyngeal and cloacal swabs. MATERIAL AND METHODS: 122 clinically healthy pigeons from different geographical regions of Slovakia were examined for the presence of C. psittaci. The adult pigeons of both genders were captured during the summer period in the urban centres of Slovakian towns. Each sample was examined by molecular method PCR, and in the case of positive result the identity of the obtained sequence was examined by a BLAST search. RESULTS: Of the total number of 244 examined samples, 14 (5.7%) showed positivity for C. psittaci infection, 5 of which were from pharyngeal swabs (4.1%) and 9 from cloacal swabs (7.4%). A positive result was detected in 13 pigeons (10.7%). Phylogenetic analysis showed that all the positive samples are genetically very close to genotypes B and genotype E. CONCLUSION: Phylogenetic examination of the 14 isolates of C. psittaci identified in the presented study, based on 23S rRNA gene sequence, revealed their close relationship with C. psittaci genotypes B and E. Both genotypes are predominantly prevalent in pigeons and both can be transmitted to humans. Therefore, it is necessary to perform screening examinations of animals and analyse the epidemiological factors affecting the way of transmission and circulation of pathogen.

Morphological and molecular analysis of the genus Culicoides (Diptera: Ceratopogonidae) in Slovakia with five new records.

The biodiversity of Culicoides from eastern Slovakia was investigated by light trapping. An integrative taxonomy approach combining DNA barcode sequence and morphological analyses was used to accurately identify specimens. Five species were newly recorded from Slovakia: Culicoides picturatus Kremer & Deduit, C. gejgelensis Dzhafarov, C. clastrieri Callot et al., C. griseidorsum Kieffer and C. odiatus Austen. The checklist of the Culicoides species recorded from SK has been updated to 63 species and barcode sequence data is provided for 8 species not previously available on GenBank. Conflict between results from molecular and morphological analyses resulted in the discovery of some potentially new cryptic species and the inability of DNA barcodes to distinguish C. festivipennis Kieffer from C. clastrieri, C. salinarius Kieffer from C. manchuriensis Tokunaga and C. pallidicornis Kieffer from C. subfasciipennis Kieffer. These conflicts suggest further study is required to clarify the status of these species. 

Occurrence of Cryptosporidium spp. in red foxes and brown bear in the Slovak Republic.

Wild animals can be involved in epidemiology of many important diseases and often act as reservoirs of pathogens which cause disease in domestic animals and humans. This paper aims the role of red fox (Vulpes vulpes) and brown bear (Ursus arctos) in the circulation of coccidian parasites from the genus Cryptosporidium. Cryptosporidiosis is known as an important enteric pathogen, clinical symptoms in particular in immune-compromised individuals range from mild to severe diarrhoea and dehydration, which could be fatal. Fecal samples from 62 red foxes shot during September 2010 to February 2011 and 63 brown bears collected during June 2010 to March 2011 in central and eastern Slovakia were examined for the qualitative determination of Cryptosporidium spp. antigens in faeces by sandwich ELISA kit. Overall, 38.7% (24/62) of faecal samples of red foxes and 55.6% (35/63) of faecal samples of brown bear were positive. Our preliminary results emphasize prevalence of Cryptosporidium spp. amongst brown bears and red foxes in Slovakia and highlight the potential risk for transmission of cryptosporidiosis to humans using the countryside for professional or recreational purposes.

Seroprevalence of antibodies to Encephalitozoon cuniculi and Encephalitozoon intestinalis in humans and animals.

The presence of antibodies against Encephalitozoon cuniculi (E. cuniculi) and Encephalitozoon intestinalis (E. intestinalis) was examined in 215 samples from humans and in 488 samples from five different species of domestic and companion animals in Slovakia. The 215 human samples and samples from 90 swine, 123 non-infected cattle (cattle), 24 cattle infected with bovine leukosis virus (BLV-positive cattle), 140 sheep and 111 dogs were examined by the enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA). Samples with serum titres 1:200 or higher were considered as positive. Specific anti-E. cuniculi antibodies were found in humans (0.9%), swine (52%), cattle (2%), sheep (9%) and dogs (15%) except for the BLV-positive cattle at the titre of 1:200. The titre of 1:400 was detected only in humans (0.5%). The presence of specific anti-E. intestinalis antibodies at the titre of 1:200 was confirmed in humans (6%), swine (51%), cattle (11%), BLV-positive cattle (13%) and dogs (6%) but not in sheep. The anti-E. intestinalis antibodies reached the 1:400 in humans (1%), swine (4%) and BLV-positive cattle (17%). The presence of specific anti-E. intestinalis antibodies at the titre of 1:600 was observed only in one swine (1%). Significant differences were observed in animals at titres 1:200 and 1:400 (chi-squared test: p<0.0001) for both pathogens and in humans only for E. cuniculi at the titre of 1:400 (chi-squared test: p<0.0075).