The immunodeficiency of chronic lymphocytic leukaemia.

INTRODUCTION: Patients with chronic lymphocytic leukaemia (CLL) have progressive immunodeficiency and infection is the commonest cause of death. This review seeks to identify the extent of the abnormality, its cause, clinical significance and any possible remedy. SOURCES OF DATA: TJH has studied CLL for the past 40 years and has scanned or read every paper he could find published on the topic since 1970 and most of those of historical importance published before that date. He has read around the subject, covering relevant articles on immunology, cell biology, oncology and genetics. Furthermore, he has attended most major meetings dealing with CLL in this time and has written many reviews to update the state of knowledge about the topic. He receives weekly updates of papers published on CLL from PubMed and Science Direct with the keywords 'chronic lymphocytic leukaemia'. AREAS OF AGREEMENT: The immunodeficiency chiefly manifests as hypogammaglobulinaemia but involves all elements of the immune system. It is caused by the interpolation of tumour cells among immunological cells and mediated by bi-directional cell contact and secretion of cytokines, which both sustain and invigorate the tumour and suppress immunity. CLL treatment generally makes the immunodeficiency worse. Intravenous immunoglobulin is clinically effective but not cost-effective, while prophylactic antibiotics are useful in appropriate circumstances. Vaccination against infectious disease is usually ineffective. AREAS OF CONTROVERSY: Exactly how the presence of tumour cells in the immune organs renders the patient immunodeficient is controversial as is the clinical significance of minor degrees of immunodeficiency in early or indolent cases. The immunosuppressive effect of most forms of treatment is agreed, but how much this should figure in the choice of treatment is a matter of dispute. GROWING POINTS: The study of tumour-stromal interactions is an area of intense research. AREAS TIMELY FOR DEVELOPING RESEARCH: There has been little done to develop better vaccination strategies in patients with CLL, and although effective antimicrobials have been developed to protect against opportunistic infections, many are both expensive and inconvenient. More work is necessary to define precisely which patients should be offered them and when.

Chronic lymphocytic leukaemia.

Chronic lymphocytic leukaemia is the commonest form of leukaemia in Europe and North America, and mainly, though not exclusively, affects older individuals. It has a very variable course, with survival ranging from months to decades. Major progress has been made in identification of molecular and cellular markers that could predict disease progression in patients with chronic lymphocytic leukaemia. In particular, the mutational profile of immunoglobulin genes and some cytogenetic abnormalities are important predictors of prognosis. However, these advances have raised new questions about the biology, prognosis, and management of chronic lymphocytic leukaemia, some of which are addressed here. In particular, we discuss how better understanding of the function of the B-cell receptor, the nature of genetic lesions, and the balance between proliferation and apoptosis have affected our ability to assess prognosis and to manage chronic lymphocytic leukaemia. Available treatments generally induce remission, although nearly all patients relapse, and chronic lymphocytic leukaemia remains an incurable disease. Advances in molecular biology have enhanced our understanding of the pathophysiology of the disease and, together with development of new therapeutic agents, have made management of chronic lymphocytic leukaemia more rational and more effective than previously. Unfortunately, we know of no way that chronic lymphocytic leukaemia can be prevented. Early detection is practised widely, but seemingly makes no difference to the patient's eventual outcome.

Chronic lymphocytic leukaemia: clinical translations of biological features.

The chronic lymphatic leukaemia (CLL) world was surprised to find that the disease split so neatly down the middle into those patients with unmutated immunoglobulin genes who were mainly men, had aggressive disease and were destined to die from their disease, on average at about 8 years from diagnosis, and those with mutated immunoglobulin genes who were equally distributed between the sexes, had indolent disease and usually died of something else a quarter of a century later. This discovery gave fresh impetus to the investigation into the biology of CLL. We now know more about, though we are still not certain of, the cell of origin of the disease and how it functions and fails to function. Intriguing clues about the roles of infectious agents and the functioning of the immune response have been scattered, but not quite put together. In addition, clinicians have been given a new tool for determining prognosis, though the tool is too clumsy for day-to-day use and surrogates are being sought. Treatment strategies based on the new biology are in development.

Differential expression of CD 180 and IgM by B-cell chronic lymphocytic leukaemia cells using mutated and unmutated immunoglobulin VH genes.

We have studied the surface expression of the Toll-like receptor family member CD 180 on cells from 78 patients with B-chronic lymphocytic leukaemia (B-CLL). B-CLL cells had variable levels of CD 180 expression, but this was always less than that expressed by normal blood B cells and was stable for 24 months. Significantly higher levels of CD 180 were expressed by B-CLL cells with mutated IGVH genes compared with those using unmutated IGVH genes. This was in contrast to the higher levels of expression of surface immunoglobulin M by B-CLL cells using unmutated, rather than mutated IGVH genes. CD 180 was functional on B-CLL cells from some of the patients, as shown by the increased expression of CD 86 following incubation in vitro with anti-CD 180. The differential expression of CD 180 amongst B-CLL patients is one more marker that may define more precisely the different biological properties of this heterogeneous disease.

The occurrence and significance of V gene mutations in B cell-derived human malignancy.

The classification of B cell tumors has relevance for refining and improving clinical strategies. However, consensus has been difficult to establish, and although a scheme is now available, objective criteria are desirable. Genetic technology will underpin and extend current knowledge, and it is certain to reveal further subdivisions of current tumor categories. The Ig variable region genes of B cell tumors present a considerable asset for this area of investigation. The unique sequences carried in neoplastic B cells are easily isolated and sequenced. In addition to acting as clone-specific markers of each tumor, they indicate where the cell has come from and track its history following transformation. There is emerging clinical value in knowing whether the cell of origin has encountered antigen and has moved from the naive compartment to the germinal center, where somatic mutation is activated. This is amply illustrated by the subdivision of chronic lymphocytic leukemia into two subsets, unmutated or mutated, each with very different prognosis. Other tumors may be subdivided in a similar way. Microarray technology is developing rapidly to probe gene expression and to further divide tumor categories. All these genetic analyses will provide objective data to enhance both our understanding of B cell tumors and our ability to treat them.

Achieving optimal outcomes in chronic lymphocytic leukaemia.

Chronic lymphocytic leukaemia (CLL) is a disease of late middle age and older. The majority of patients are diagnosed because of a lymphocytosis of at least 5 x 10(9)/L on an incidental blood count. It needs to be distinguished from mantle cell lymphoma and splenic marginal zone lymphoma by lymphocyte markers. The immunophenotype of CLL is sparse surface immunoglobulin, CD5+, CD19+, CD23+, CD79b-, and FMC7-. The disease is staged according to the presence of lymphadenopathy and/or splenomegaly and the features of bone marrow suppression. Most patients have an early stage of disease when diagnosed and perhaps 50% will never progress. This group of patients have a normal life expectancy and do not require treatment beyond reassurance. Progression involves an increasing white cell count, enlarging lymph nodes and spleen, anaemia and thrombocytopenia. Complications of progression include autoimmune haemolytic anaemia and thrombocytopenia, immunodeficiency, and the development of a more aggressive lymphoma. A range of prognostic factors is available to predict progression, but most haematologists rely on close observation of the patient. Intermittent chlorambucil remains the first choice treatment for the majority of patients. Combination chemotherapy offers no advantage. Intravenous fludarabine is probably more effective than chlorambucil, but no trial has yet shown a survival advantage for using it first rather than as a salvage treatment in patients not responding to chlorambucil. It is at least 40 times as expensive as chlorambucil. Cladribine may be as effective as fludarabine, although it has been used less and is even more expensive. Patients who relapse after chlorambucil should be offered retreatment with the same agent and if refractory should be switched to fludarabine, which may also be offered for retreatment on relapse. For patients refractory to both drugs, a variety of options are available. High dose corticosteroids, high dose chlorambucil, CHOP (cyclophosphamide, prednisolone, vincristine and doxorubicin), anti-CD52, anti-CD20 and a range of experimental drugs which are being evaluated in clinical trials. Younger patients should be offered the chance of treatment with curative intent, preferably in the context of a clinical trial. Autologous stem cell transplantation after achieving a remission with fludarabine has relative safety and may produce molecular complete remissions. Only time will tell whether some of these patients are cured but it seems unlikely. Standard allogeneic bone marrow transplant is probably too hazardous for most patients, but non-myeloablative regimens hold out the hope of invoking a graft-versus-leukaemia effect without a high tumour-related mortality. Trials of immunotherapy are exciting options for a few patients in specialised centres.

Somatic mutation of bcl-6 genes can occur in the absence of V(H) mutations in chronic lymphocytic leukemia.

Somatic mutation in immunoglobulin variable (V) region genes occurs largely in the germinal center and, after neoplastic transformation, imprints V genes of B-cell tumors with the mutational history of the cell of origin. Recently, it has been found that chronic lymphocytic leukemia (CLL) consists of 2 subsets, each with a different clinical course, one with unmutated V(H) genes consistent with a naive B cell, and the other with mutated V(H) genes consistent with transit through the germinal center. However, somatic mutation also occurs at another distinct locus, the 5' noncoding region of the bcl-6 gene, in both B-cell tumors and in normal germinal center B cells. To probe the suggestive link between the occurrence of mutations in V(H) and bcl-6 genes, we analyzed the nature of somatic mutation at these distinct loci in the 2 CLL subsets. Unexpectedly, we found no such link in the CLLs defined by unmutated V(H) genes, with 4 of 10 cases clearly showing mutations in bcl-6. In those CLLs defined by somatically mutated V(H) genes, 4 of 9 cases predictively showed bcl-6 mutations. The frequency of bcl-6 mutations was comparable in both subsets, with mutations being biallelic, and in 3 of 8 cases indicative of clonal origins. Surprisingly, intraclonal variation, which is not a feature of V(H) genes in CLL, was found in 6 of 8 cases in both subsets. These data indicate that somatic mutation of the V(H) and bcl-6 loci may not necessarily occur in tandem in CLL, suggesting diverse pathways operating on the 2 genes.

Unmutated Ig V(H) genes are associated with a more aggressive form of chronic lymphocytic leukemia.

Despite having several characteristics of naïve B cells, chronic lymphocytic leukemia (CLL) cells have been shown in some cases to have somatically mutated Ig variable region genes, indicating that the cell of origin has passed through the germinal center. A previous study of patients with CLL found an association between lack of somatic mutation and trisomy 12 and, therefore, possibly with a less favorable prognosis. We have sequenced the Ig V(H) genes of the tumor cells of 84 patients with CLL and correlated our findings with clinical features. A total of 38 cases (45.2%) showed >/= 98% sequence homology with the nearest germline V(H) gene; 46 cases (54.8%) showed >2% somatic mutation. Unmutated V(H) genes were significantly associated with V1-69 and D3-3 usage, with atypical morphology; isolated trisomy 12, advanced stage and progressive disease. Survival was significantly worse for patients with unmutated V(H) genes irrespective of stage. Median survival for stage A patients with unmutated V(H) genes was 95 months compared with 293 months for patients whose tumors had mutated V(H) genes (P =.0008). The simplest explanation is that CLL comprises 2 different diseases with different clinical courses. One, arising from a memory B cell, has a benign course, the other, arising from a naïve B cell, is more malignant.

B-cell chronic lymphocytic leukemia: a bird of a different feather.

PURPOSE: To review the recent major advances in the molecular and cell biology of B-cell chronic lymphocytic leukemia (B-CLL). METHODS: We analyzed the nature of malignant B-CLL B cells and their interactions with the microenvironment. RESULTS: B-CLL is a malignancy of a mantle zone-based subpopulation of anergic, self-reactive, activated CD5+ B cells devoted to the production of polyreactive natural autoantibodies. It is the quintessential example of a human malignancy that primarily involves defects in the induction of programmed cell death. An abnormal karyotype is observed in about 50% of patients with B-CLL. Patients with 13q14 abnormalities show heavy somatic mutation and have a benign disease. Trisomy 12 is associated with unmutated VH genes, atypical cellular morphology, and progressive disease. Extended cell survival is further shielded by a kinetic refractoriness likely promoted by abnormalities of the B-cell antigen receptor complex and favored by some cytokines that highlight a reciprocal dialog between malignant B and T cells. Because the tumor cells act as the major accessory cells, the accumulating malignant B-cell population per se is a hurdle to the production of normal antibodies and leads to a progressive and severe hypogammaglobulinemia. Conceivably, in the presence of certain immunoglobulin genes and when the T-cell control becomes deficient, activated malignant B cells may become able to present self-antigens and drive residual normal B cells to produce polyclonal autoantibodies restricted to self-antigens expressed only by blood cells and cause autoimmune cytopenias. CONCLUSION: The distinctiveness of B-CLL B cells explains why B-CLL is different from other B-cell tumors and accounts for the development of immune deficiency and autoimmunity.

Management of multiple myeloma today.

Multiple myeloma is almost invariably fatal despite a wide variety of chemotherapeutic and supportive treatment options. There are several unresolved problems with existing approaches, including the specific indications for treatment; the optimal combination of agents and doses; and the type, frequency, and timing of high-dose therapy and stem-cell transplantation. High-dose chemotherapy followed by stem-cell transplantation produces higher remission rates, but patients rarely, if ever, are cured by a single regimen. Allogeneic hematopoietic stem-cell transplantations offer a potential graft-versus-myeloma (GVM) effect. Researchers are focusing efforts on improving the safety of transplant procedures, increasing response rates to ablative therapy, and testing novel posttransplant options to improve outcomes. The newly devised National Comprehensive Cancer Network (NCCN) guidelines for treating multiple myeloma are also discussed.

Antibody therapy for treatment of multiple myeloma.

Monoclonal antibody therapy has emerged as a viable treatment option for patients with lymphoma and some leukemias. It is now beginning to be investigated for treatment of multiple myeloma. There are relatively few surface antigens on the plasma cells that are suitable for antibody-directed treatment. Possible molecules include HM1.24, CD38, ICAM-1 (CD54), CD40, CD45, CD20, and syndecan 1. There is now some clinical experience with anti-CD38 antibody in lymphoma and myeloma. However, to date, there has been minimal clinical activity observed. Additional antibodies are entering clinical trials. A new approach involves the generation of an anti-CD38 single-chain variable fragment (scFv) construct that acts as the carrier of a toxin gene instead of being conjugated directly to the toxin itself. It is hoped that expression of the toxin by CD38+ plasma cells will promote suicide of the malignant cells without affecting normal cells or generating an immunologic response to the toxin. Ongoing clinical trials are also attempting to target B-cell antigens such as CD20. Although CD20 is present only on 20% of myeloma cells, it may be present on myeloma precursor cells. This treatment has met with success in follicular lymphoma and is now being evaluated in clinical trials in both Europe and the United States for myeloma. Although these clinical trials are in very early stages, researchers are beginning to understand that antibody therapy can be used not only as a carrier molecule of radioisotopes and toxins, but also as molecules that can trigger tumor cells and promote growth arrest or apoptosis.

DNA vaccines against haematological malignancies.

DNA vaccines against cancer have to activate an inadequate or damaged immune system in order to attack residual cancer cells. Although the potential problem of tolerance may be overcome by transplantation, provision of high levels of T-cell help is likely to be an important factor in stimulating effective immune pathways. The fusion gene approach appears to provide the required help, and offers a rational design for raising both antibody and T-cell mediated attack against lymphoma and myeloma, which express idiotypic antigen at the cell surface or as a secreted protein respectively. Intriguingly, preliminary data indicate that the fusion gene approach promotes antibody responses against a different cell surface tumour antigen, CEA. Strategies for using DNA vaccines to induce attack on processed peptides bound to MHC class I molecules are also being developed. We hope and anticipate that all categories of tumour antigen may be susceptible to this powerful new technology. The critical clinical requirement, however, will be to treat the presenting tumour with maintenance or restoration of immune capacity. We await results of the preliminary clinical trials with great interest.

DNA vaccines with single-chain Fv fused to fragment C of tetanus toxin induce protective immunity against lymphoma and myeloma.

Vaccination with idiotypic protein protects against B-cell lymphoma, mainly through anti-idiotypic antibody. For use in patients, DNA vaccines containing single-chain Fv derived from tumor provide a convenient alternative vaccine delivery system. However, single-chain Fv sequence alone induces low anti-idiotypic response and poor protection against lymphoma. Fusion of the gene encoding fragment C of tetanus toxin to single-chain Fv substantially promotes the anti-idiotypic response and induces strong protection against B-cell lymphoma. The same fusion design also induces protective immunity against a surface Ig-negative myeloma. These findings indicate that fusion to a pathogen sequence allows a tumor antigen to engage diverse immune mechanisms that suppress growth. This fusion design has the added advantage of overcoming potential tolerance to tumor that may exist in patients.

Chronic lymphocytic leukaemia: the nature of the leukaemic cell.

Far from being the boring, inactive, inert lymphocyte that haematologists of old perceived it to be, the chronic lymphocytic leukaemia (CLL) cell has set us many complex problems. The cell is apparently stuck in G0 in cell cycle, yet expresses many activation markers. The cells apparently manufacture many cytokines and respond in vitro to even more, yet cells entering even G1 are few. The cell surface marker profile is unique. There is apparently no normal equivalent of the CLL cell. In part, this may be because the cell is malignant; malignant cells often express aberrant markers. Consistent chromosomal abnormalities are emerging but we have no idea how these abnormalities translate into molecular mistakes that dictate the peculiar nature of the cell. CLL cells carry a characteristics set of adhesion molecules, but we cannot read their homing and recycling instructions. The outstanding irregularities of the CLL cell are its CD5 positivity and its sparse surface immunoglobulin. This ought to translate as an anergic B1 cell, perhaps programmed for autoimmunity. If the tumour cell were responsible for the patient's production of immunoglobulin or secretion of autoantibodies, then a pattern might have emerged. Alas, these are the product of the normal B cells. How the CLL cell induces these complications is unknown. Thus, despite the information contained in this review, the CLL cell remains a puzzle.

Atypical lymphocyte morphology: an adverse prognostic factor for disease progression in stage A CLL independent of trisomy 12.

We studied 270 patients with Binet stage A chronic lymphocytic leukaemia looking for adverse prognostic factors. In a multivariate analysis the following features were found to be risk factors for disease progression: atypical lymphocyte morphology (defined as either > 10% prolymphocytes or > 15% lymphocytes with cleaved nuclei or lymphoplasmacytoid cells); more than two karyotypic abnormalities; lymphocyte count > 30 x 10(9)/l; lymphocyte doubling time < 1 year; enlargement of one or more lymph node groups. In a univariate analysis the presence of trisomy 12 also correlated with progressive disease, but this was largely a consequence of the association between trisomy 12 and atypical lymphocyte morphology. Atypical lymphocyte morphology is an important prognostic factor in stage A CLL, and one which incurs no additional investigational cost.