The gain of function SCN1A disorder spectrum: novel epilepsy phenotypes and therapeutic implications.

Brain voltage-gated sodium channel NaV1.1 (SCN1A) loss-of-function variants cause the severe epilepsy Dravet syndrome, as well as milder phenotypes associated with genetic epilepsy with febrile seizures plus. Gain of function SCN1A variants are associated with familial hemiplegic migraine type 3. Novel SCN1A-related phenotypes have been described including early infantile developmental and epileptic encephalopathy with movement disorder, and more recently neonatal presentations with arthrogryposis. Here we describe the clinical, genetic and functional evaluation of affected individuals. Thirty-five patients were ascertained via an international collaborative network using a structured clinical questionnaire and from the literature. We performed whole-cell voltage-clamp electrophysiological recordings comparing sodium channels containing wild-type versus variant NaV1.1 subunits. Findings were related to Dravet syndrome and familial hemiplegic migraine type 3 variants. We identified three distinct clinical presentations differing by age at onset and presence of arthrogryposis and/or movement disorder. The most severely affected infants (n = 13) presented with congenital arthrogryposis, neonatal onset epilepsy in the first 3 days of life, tonic seizures and apnoeas, accompanied by a significant movement disorder and profound intellectual disability. Twenty-one patients presented later, between 2 weeks and 3 months of age, with a severe early infantile developmental and epileptic encephalopathy and a movement disorder. One patient presented after 3 months with developmental and epileptic encephalopathy only. Associated SCN1A variants cluster in regions of channel inactivation associated with gain of function, different to Dravet syndrome variants (odds ratio = 17.8; confidence interval = 5.4-69.3; P = 1.3 × 10-7). Functional studies of both epilepsy and familial hemiplegic migraine type 3 variants reveal alterations of gating properties in keeping with neuronal hyperexcitability. While epilepsy variants result in a moderate increase in action current amplitude consistent with mild gain of function, familial hemiplegic migraine type 3 variants induce a larger effect on gating properties, in particular the increase of persistent current, resulting in a large increase of action current amplitude, consistent with stronger gain of function. Clinically, 13 out of 16 (81%) gain of function variants were associated with a reduction in seizures in response to sodium channel blocker treatment (carbamazepine, oxcarbazepine, phenytoin, lamotrigine or lacosamide) without evidence of symptom exacerbation. Our study expands the spectrum of gain of function SCN1A-related epilepsy phenotypes, defines key clinical features, provides novel insights into the underlying disease mechanisms between SCN1A-related epilepsy and familial hemiplegic migraine type 3, and identifies sodium channel blockers as potentially efficacious therapies. Gain of function disease should be considered in early onset epilepsies with a pathogenic SCN1A variant and non-Dravet syndrome phenotype.

Friedreich Ataxia in Classical Galactosaemia.

Movement disorders such as ataxia are a recognized complication of classical galactosaemia, even in diet-compliant patients. Here, we report the coexistence of classical galactosaemia and Friedreich ataxia (FRDA) in nine children from seven Irish Traveller families. These two autosomal recessive disorders, the loci for which are located on either side of the centromere of chromosome 9, appear to be in linkage disequilibrium in this subgroup. Both conditions are known to occur with increased frequency amongst the Irish Traveller population.Each member of our cohort had been diagnosed with galactosaemia in the neonatal period, and all are homozygous for the common Q188R mutation in the GALT gene. Eight of the nine patients later presented with progressive ataxia, between the ages of 5-13 years. Another child presented in cardiac failure secondary to dilated cardiomyopathy at 7 years of age. He was not ataxic at presentation and, one year from diagnosis, his neurological examination remains normal. The diagnosis of FRDA was confirmed by detecting the common pathogenic GAA expansion in both alleles of the frataxin gene (FXN) in each patient.Neurological symptoms are easily attributed to an underlying diagnosis of galactosaemia. It is important to consider a diagnosis of Friedreich ataxia in a child from the Irish Traveller population with galactosaemia who presents with ataxia or cardiomyopathy.

Towards the identification of a genetic basis for Landau-Kleffner syndrome.

OBJECTIVE: To establish the genetic basis of Landau-Kleffner syndrome (LKS) in a cohort of two discordant monozygotic (MZ) twin pairs and 11 isolated cases. METHODS: We used a multifaceted approach to identify genetic risk factors for LKS. Array comparative genomic hybridization (CGH) was performed using the Agilent 180K array. Whole genome methylation profiling was undertaken in the two discordant twin pairs, three isolated LKS cases, and 12 control samples using the Illumina 27K array. Exome sequencing was undertaken in 13 patients with LKS including two sets of discordant MZ twins. Data were analyzed with respect to novel and rare variants, overlapping genes, variants in reported epilepsy genes, and pathway enrichment. RESULTS: A variant (cG1553A) was found in a single patient in the GRIN2A gene, causing an arginine to histidine change at site 518, a predicted glutamate binding site. Following copy number variation (CNV), methylation, and exome sequencing analysis, no single candidate gene was identified to cause LKS in the remaining cohort. However, a number of interesting additional candidate variants were identified including variants in RELN, BSN, EPHB2, and NID2. SIGNIFICANCE: A single mutation was identified in the GRIN2A gene. This study has identified a number of additional candidate genes including RELN, BSN, EPHB2, and NID2. A PowerPoint slide summarizing this article is available for download in the Supporting Information section here.

SURF1 deficiency: a multi-centre natural history study.

BACKGROUND: SURF1 deficiency, a monogenic mitochondrial disorder, is the most frequent cause of cytochrome c oxidase (COX) deficient Leigh syndrome (LS). We report the first natural history study of SURF1 deficiency. METHODS: We conducted a multi-centre case notes review of 44 SURF1-deficient patients from ten different UK centres and two Australian centres. Survival data for LRPPRC-deficient LS and nuclear-encoded complex I-deficient LS patients were obtained from previous publications. The survival of SURF1-deficient patients was compared with these two groups using Kaplan-Meier survival analysis and logrank test. RESULTS: The majority of patients (32/44, 73%) presented in infancy (median 9.5 months). Frequent symptoms were poor weight gain (95%, median age 10 months), hypotonia (93%, median age 14 months), poor feeding/vomiting (89%, median age 10 months), developmental delay (88%, median age 14 months), developmental regression (71%, median age 19 months), movement disorder (52%, median age 24 months), oculomotor involvement (52%, median age 29 months) and central respiratory failure (78%, median age 31 months). Hypertrichosis (41%), optic atrophy (23%), encephalopathy (20%), seizures (14%) and cardiomyopathy (2%) were observed less frequently. CONCLUSIONS: SURF1-deficient patients have a homogeneous clinical and biochemical phenotype. Early recognition is essential to expedite diagnosis and enable prenatal diagnosis.

Milder phenotypes of glucose transporter type 1 deficiency syndrome.

Glucose transporter type 1 deficiency syndrome (GLUT1DS) is a treatable condition resulting from impaired glucose transport into the brain. The classical presentation is with infantile-onset epilepsy and severe developmental delay. Non-classical phenotypes with movement disorders and early-onset absence epilepsy are increasingly recognized and the clinical spectrum is expanding. The hallmark is hypoglycorrhachia (cerebrospinal fluid [CSF] glucose<2.2 mmol/l) in the presence of normoglycaemia with a CSF/blood glucose ratio of less than 0.4. GLUT1DS is due to a mutation in the solute carrier family 2, member 1 gene (SLC2A1). We present five individuals (four males, one female), all of whom had a mild phenotype, highlighting the importance of considering this diagnosis in unexplained neurological disorders associated with mild learning difficulties, subtle motor delay, early-onset absence epilepsy, fluctuating gait disorders, and/or dystonia. The mean age at diagnosis was 8 years 8 months. This paper also shows phenotypical parallels between GLUT1DS and paroxysmal exertion-induced dyskinesia.

Elevated VGKC-complex antibodies in a boy with fever-induced refractory epileptic encephalopathy in school-age children (FIRES).

Fever-induced refractory epileptic encephalopathy in school-age children (FIRES) is a clinically recognized epileptic encephalopathy of unknown aetiology. Presentation in previously healthy children is characterized by febrile status epilepticus. A pharmacoresistant epilepsy ensues, occurring in parallel with dramatic cognitive decline and behavioural difficulties. We describe a case of FIRES in a 4-year-old boy that was associated with elevated voltage-gated potassium channel (VGKC) complex antibodies and a significant clinical and immunological response to immunomodulation. This case, therefore, potentially expands the clinical phenotype of VGKC antibody-associated disease to include that of FIRES. Prior to immunomodulation, neuropsychology assessment highlighted significant attention, memory, and word-finding difficulties. The UK version of the Wechsler Preschool and Primary Scale of Intelligence assessment indicated particular difficulties with verbal skills (9th centile). Immunomodulation was initially administered as intravenous methylprednisolone (followed by maintenance oral prednisolone) and later in the disease course as regular monthly intravenous immunoglobulin infusions and low-dose azathioprine. Now aged 6 years, the seizure burden in this child is much reduced, although increased seizure frequency is observed in the few days before his monthly immunoglobulin infusions. Formal IQ assessment has not been repeated but there is no clinical suggestion of further cognitive regression. VGKC complex antibodies have been reported in a range of central and peripheral neurological disorders (predominantly presenting in adulthood), and the identification of elevated VGKC complex antibodies, combined with the response to immunotherapies in this child, supports an autoimmune pathogenesis in FIRES with potential diagnostic and therapeutic implications.

Adjustment in children with intractable epilepsy: importance of seizure duration and family factors.

Seventy-five families of children with intractable epilepsy but without a severe learning disability (mean age 7 years 1 month, SD 2 years 6 months; range 2 to 12 years) who attended a regional paediatric neurology service, were surveyed. A postal questionnaire was used which included standardized measures of child and family adjustment; forty-eight families responded (64%; 31 males, 17 females). There was no significant difference between responders and non-responders in terms of age, sex, number of other chronic illnesses and disabilities, age at epilepsy diagnosis, seizure type, nor number of antiepileptic drugs currently prescribed (p > 0.05). The importance of including multidimensional measures of outcome was highlighted by the finding that epilepsy, pharmacological, and psychosocial factors were differentially associated with specific adjustment difficulties. Two factors appeared to be most pervasively implicated across a range of adjustment problems: frequency of rectal diazepam administration and family patterns of relating to each other (p < 0.05). It appeared that duration of seizures (as indicated by frequency of rectal diazepam administration), rather than the frequency of seizures per se, was more pernicious in terms of poor adjustment. Intrafamilial relations (degree of conflict/cohesion and soon) were not only associated with adjustment difficulties in the child, but also with the frequency of seizures themselves. Implications for psychological interventions in intractable epilepsy in childhood are highlighted.