Molecular phylogeny of the tropical wandering spiders (Araneae, Ctenidae) and the evolution of eye conformation in the RTA clade.

Tropical wandering spiders (Ctenidae) are a diverse group of cursorial predators with its greatest species richness in the tropics. Traditionally, Ctenidae are diagnosed based on the presence of eight eyes arranged in three rows (a 2-4-2 pattern). We present a molecular phylogeny of Ctenidae, including for the first time representatives of all of its subfamilies. The molecular phylogeny was inferred using five nuclear (histone H3, 28S, 18S, Actin and ITS-2) and four mitochondrial (NADH, COI, 12S and 16S) markers. The final matrix includes 259 terminals, 103 of which belong to Ctenidae and represent 28 of the current 49 described genera. We estimated divergence times by including fossils as calibration points and biogeographic events, and used the phylogenetic hypothesis obtained to reconstruct the evolution of the eye conformation in the retrolateral tibial apophysis (RTA) clade. Ctenidae and its main lineages originated during the Paleocene-Eocene and have diversified in the tropics since then. However, in some analyses Ctenidae was recovered as polyphyletic as the genus Ancylometes Bertkau, 1880 was placed as sister to Oxyopidae. Except for Acantheinae, in which the type genus Acantheis Thorell, 1891 is placed inside Cteninae, the four recognized subfamilies of Ctenidae are monophyletic in most analyses. The ancestral reconstruction of the ocular conformation in the retrolateral tibial apophysis clade suggests that the ocular pattern of Ctenidae has evolved convergently seven times and that it has originated from ocular conformations of two rows of four eyes (4-4) and the ocular pattern of lycosids (4-2-2). We also synonymize the monotypic genus Parabatinga Polotov & Brescovit, 2009 with Centroctenus Mello-Leitão, 1929. We discuss some of the putative morphological synapomorphies of the main ctenid lineages within the phylogenetic framework offered by the molecular phylogenetic results of the study.

Complete mitochondrial genome of Phoneutria depilata (Araneae, Ctenidae): New insights into the phylogeny and evolution of spiders.

Spiders (Araneae) are the most abundant terrestrial predators and megadiverse on earth. In recent years, the mitochondrial genome of a great diversity of species has been sequenced, mainly for ecological and commercial purposes. These studies have uncovered the existence of a variety of mitochondrial genome rearrangements. However, there is poor genetic information in several taxonomic families of spiders. We have sequenced the complete genome of Phoneutria depilata (Ctenidae) and, based on this, extract the mitogenomes of other ctenid species from published transcriptomes to perform a comparative study among spider species to determine the relationship between the level of mitochondrial rearrangements and its possible relationship with molecular variability in spiders. Complete mitochondrial genomes of eighteen spiders (including eight Ctenidae species) were obtained by two different methodologies (sequencing and transcriptome extraction). Fifty-eight spider mitochondrial genomes were downloaded from the NCBI database for gene order analysis. After verifying the annotation of each mitochondrial gene, a phylogenetic and a gene order analysis from 76 spider mitochondrial genomes were carried out. Our results show a high rate of annotation error in the published spider mitochondrial genomes, which could lead to errors in phylogenetic inference. Moreover, to provide new mitochondrial genomes in spiders by two different methodologies to obtain them, our analysis identifies six different mitochondrial architectures among all spiders. Translocation or tandem duplication random loss (TDRL) events in tRNA genes were identified to explain the evolution of the spider mitochondrial genome. In addition, our findings provide new insights into spider mitochondrial evolution.

Corrigenda: Morphological and molecular evidence support the taxonomic separation of the medically important Neotropical spiders Phoneutria depilata (Strand, 1909) and P. boliviensis (F.O. Pickard-Cambridge, 1897) (Araneae, Ctenidae). ZooKeys 1022: 13-50. https://doi.org/10.3897/zookeys.1022.60571.

[This corrects the article DOI: 10.3897/zookeys.1022.60571.].

Morphological and molecular evidence support the taxonomic separation of the medically important Neotropical spiders Phoneutria depilata (Strand, 1909) and P. boliviensis (F.O. Pickard-Cambridge, 1897) (Araneae, Ctenidae).

The species of the genus Phoneutria (Ctenidae), also called banana spiders, are considered amongst the most venomous spiders in the world. In this study we revalidate P. depilata (Strand, 1909), which had been synonymized with P. boliviensisis (F.O. Pickard-Cambridge, 1897), using morphological and nucleotide sequence data (COI and ITS-2) together with species delimitation methods. We synonymized Ctenus peregrinoides, Strand, 1910 and Phoneutria colombiana Schmidt, 1956 with P. depilata. Furthermore, we designated Ctenus signativenter Strand, 1910 as a nomen dubium because the exact identity of this species cannot be ascertained with immature specimens, but we note that the type locality suggests that the C. signativenter syntypes belong to P. depilata. We also provide species distribution models for both species of Phoneutria and test hypotheses of niche conservatism under an allopatric speciation model. Our phylogenetic analyses support the monophyly of the genus Phoneutria and recover P. boliviensis and P. depilata as sister species, although with low nodal support. In addition, the tree-based species delimitation methods also supported the separate identities of these two species. Phoneutria boliviensis and P. depilata present allopatric distributions separated by the Andean mountain system. Species distribution models indicate lowland tropical rain forest ecosystems as the most suitable habitat for these two Phoneutria species. In addition, we demonstrate the value of citizen science platforms like iNaturalist in improving species distribution knowledge based on occurrence records. Phoneutria depilata and P. boliviensis present niche conservatism following the expected neutral model of allopatric speciation. The compiled occurrence records and distribution maps for these two species, together with the morphological diagnosis of both species, will help to identify risk areas of accidental bites and assist health professionals to determine the identity of the species involved in bites, especially for P. depilata.

Biogeographic regions and events of isolation and diversification of the endemic biota of the tropical Andes.

Understanding the spatial and temporal evolution of biota in the tropical Andes is a major challenge, given the region's topographic complexity and high beta diversity. We used a network approach to find biogeographic regions (bioregions) based on high-resolution species distribution models for 151 endemic bird taxa. Then, we used dated molecular phylogenies of 14 genera to reconstruct the area history through a sequence of allopatric speciation processes. We identified 15 biogeographical regions and found 26 events of isolation and diversification within their boundaries that are independently confirmed with disjunct distributions of sister taxa. Furthermore, these events are spatially congruent with six geographical barriers related to warm and/or dry river valleys, discontinuities in elevation, and high peaks separating fauna from different range slopes. The most important barrier is the Marañon River Valley, which limits the boundaries of four bioregions and is congruent with eight phylogenetic distribution breaks, separating the Central and Northern Andes, where the most bioregions are found. We also show that many bioregions have diffuse and overlapping structures, with contact and transition zones that challenge previous conceptions of biogeographical regions as spatially simple in structure. This study found evidence that the drivers of our identified bioregions were processes of Andean uplift and mountain dispersal facilitated by temperature oscillations of the Pleistocene. Therefore, Andean bioregions were not formed from one simple biogeographical event in a certain time frame, but from a combination of vicariance and dispersal events, which occurred in different time periods.

Systematics and biogeography of Spinoctenus, a new genus of wandering spider from Colombia (Ctenidae)

Among ctenid spiders, ctenines comprise the most diverse subfamily. In this study, a new genus of Cteninae, Spinoctenus, is proposed to include the type species S. yotoco, sp. nov. Ten new species are also described: S. escalerete, S. pericos, S. eberhardi, S. spinosus, S. stephaniae, S. nambi, S. florezi, S. tequendama, S. chocoensis and S. flammigerus. Results of the parsimony and Bayesian phylogenetic analyses using morphological and behavioural characters indicate the monophyly of this genus, closely related to Phoneutria Perty, 1883 and Ctenus Walckenaer, 1805. This genus can be distinguished from the remaining Ctenidae by three unambiguous synapomorphies: embolus with folded process, tegulum with median process, and RTA curved internally close to the cymbium. A dispersal-vicariance biogeographical analysis of the genus in the Andean and Choco regions indicates the origin of Spinoctenus in the Western and Central Andean Cordilleras. From this region, three events of dispersal occurred to the other regions (one to the Choco and two to the Eastern Cordillera), which were subsequently followed by three events of vicariance, suggesting that dispersal and vicariance were equally important in shaping the current distribution patterns of Spinoctenus species. The discovery of this new genus containing a large number of new species in the Andean and Choco regions highlights the current poor knowledge of the Colombian biodiversity.

Systematics and biogeography of Spinoctenus, a new genus of wandering spider from Colombia (Ctenidae)

Among ctenid spiders, ctenines comprise the most diverse subfamily. In this study, a new genus of Cteninae, Spinoctenus, is proposed to include the type species S. yotoco, sp. nov. Ten new species are also described: S. escalerete, S. pericos, S. eberhardi, S. spinosus, S. stephaniae, S. nambi, S. florezi, S. tequendama, S. chocoensis and S. flammigerus. Results of the parsimony and Bayesian phylogenetic analyses using morphological and behavioural characters indicate the monophyly of this genus, closely related to Phoneutria Perty, 1883 and Ctenus Walckenaer, 1805. This genus can be distinguished from the remaining Ctenidae by three unambiguous synapomorphies: embolus with folded process, tegulum with median process, and RTA curved internally close to the cymbium. A dispersal-vicariance biogeographical analysis of the genus in the Andean and Choco regions indicates the origin of Spinoctenus in the Western and Central Andean Cordilleras. From this region, three events of dispersal occurred to the other regions (one to the Choco and two to the Eastern Cordillera), which were subsequently followed by three events of vicariance, suggesting that dispersal and vicariance were equally important in shaping the current distribution patterns of Spinoctenus species. The discovery of this new genus containing a large number of new species in the Andean and Choco regions highlights the current poor knowledge of the Colombian biodiversity.

Potential geographic distribution of two invasive cassava green mites.

The cassava green mites Mononychellus tanajoa and M. mcgregori are highly invasive species that rank among the most serious pests of cassava globally. To guide the development of appropriate risk mitigation measures preventing their introduction and spread, this article estimates their potential geographic distribution using the maximum entropy approach to distribution modeling. We compiled 1,232 occurrence records for M. tanajoa and 99 for M. mcgregori, and relied on the WorldClim climate database as a source of environmental predictors. To mitigate the potential impact of uneven sampling efforts, we applied a distance correction filter resulting in 429 occurrence records for M. tanajoa and 55 for M. mcgregori. To test for environmental biases in our occurrence data, we developed models trained and tested with records from different continents, before developing the definitive models using the full record sets. The geographically-structured models revealed good cross-validation for M. tanajoa but not for M. mcgregori, likely reflecting a subtropical bias in M. mcgregori's invasive range in Asia. The definitive models exhibited very good performance and predicted different potential distribution patterns for the two species. Relative to M. tanajoa, M. mcgregori seems better adapted to survive in locations lacking a pronounced dry season, for example across equatorial climates. Our results should help decision-makers assess the site-specific risk of cassava green mite establishment, and develop proportional risk mitigation measures to prevent their introduction and spread. These results should be particularly timely to help address the recent detection of M. mcgregori in Southeast Asia.

A geographic distribution database of the Neotropical cassava whitefly complex (Hemiptera, Aleyrodidae) and their associated parasitoids and hyperparasitoids (Hymenoptera).

Whiteflies (Hemiptera, Aleyrodidae) are represented by more than 1,500 herbivorous species around the world. Some of them are notorious pests of cassava (Manihot esculenta), a primary food crop in the tropics. Particularly destructive is a complex of Neotropical cassava whiteflies whose distribution remains restricted to their native range. Despite their importance, neither their distribution, nor that of their associated parasitoids, is well documented. This paper therefore reports observational and specimen-based occurrence records of Neotropical cassava whiteflies and their associated parasitoids and hyperparasitoids. The dataset consists of 1,311 distribution records documented by the International Center for Tropical Agriculture (CIAT) between 1975 and 2012. The specimens are held at CIAT's Arthropod Reference Collection (CIATARC, Cali, Colombia). Eleven species of whiteflies, 14 species of parasitoids and one species of hyperparasitoids are reported. Approximately 66% of the whitefly records belong to Aleurotrachelus socialis and 16% to Bemisia tuberculata. The parasitoids with most records are Encarsia hispida, Amitus macgowni and Encarsia bellottii for Aleurotrachelus socialis; and Encarsia sophia for Bemisia tuberculata. The complete dataset is available in Darwin Core Archive format via the Global Biodiversity Information Facility (GBIF).

New records and geographical distribution of ctenid spiders (Araneae: Ctenidae) in Colombia.

This study provides new records, geographical distribution extensions and a checklist of the current ctenids species in Colombia based on the review of four arachnological collections and published literature. A total of 15 new records for Ctenidae in Colombia are reported; nine of these species are new records for the country and the distribution of the remaining six is expanded. The genus Centroctenus Mello-Leitão, 1929 (C. ocelliventer Strand, 1909) is recorded for first time in Colombia and Cupiennius coccineus (F.O. Pickard-Cambridge, 1901) for South America. Due to the strategic geographic position of Colombia, which is a transition zone between Southern and Central American biotas, species inventories in different localities are important to fill distributional gaps. The number of known species of ctenids in Colombia is increased from 16 to 25 and these data will be useful for future studies in taxonomy, systematics and biogeography of this family.